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This study addressed the following research questions: 1) What is the effect of differentiated gamified instruction on the cognitive engagement of ninth grade students in the unit of plant and animal systems? 2) What is the effect of differentiated gamified instruction on the behavioral engagement of ninth grade biology students in the unit of plant and animal systems? 3) What is the effect of differentiated gamified instruction on the emotional engagement of ninth grade biology students in the unit of plant and animal systems, and 4) Does differentiated gamified instruction influence ninth grade students' academic performance in the unit of plant and animal systems? The purpose of this action research was to evaluate the impact of differentiated gamification on student cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement, and academic performance within the unit of plant and animal systems for ninth grade biology students. Scientific literacy is considered a key component of education, as it contributes to societal innovation, economic production, and an informed public. Comprehension of biological concepts and processes, such as plant and animal systems, provide a greater understanding of the living world, and contributes to overall scientific literacy. Although a vital component to science education and literacy, students continue to struggle with the concepts of plant and animal systems. Research suggests that increased engagement in learning may positively impact student outcomes and achievement. This study incorporated the Classcraft online platform for differentiated gamified instruction through the quest feature. Participants for this study came from eight sections (n = 191) of ninth grade public high school biology students. Data was collected through pre-and post-surveys on engagement, pre-and post-tests on plant and animal systems content, and semi-structured student interviews. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were conducted on survey data and showed no significant difference in cognitive, behavioral, or emotional engagement, however, interview data revealed that students interacted with and enjoyed many of the gamified elements. A paired t-test showed significant growth from the pre- to post-tests, and qualitative data suggests that the intervention supported learning. While academic achievement increased, these results suggest a complex relationship between differentiated gamification and student engagement. Students' interactions with the platform coupled with their positive views on the game elements, specifically rewards and customization, suggest that there is potential for differentiated gamification to increase student engagement. These results indicate that further research is needed to determine the intricacies. Implications for the use of differentiated gamification and for future research are discussed. Study limitations included differences in teaching styles, access to students, student participation, accuracy of cognitive engagement measurements, and the reliability of the survey questions. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Embodied models of language comprehension assume that words become associated with sensorimotor experiences during word learning. Novel word learning paradigms may provide insight into embodied effects, but studies in this domain have yet to account for how concepts and information known in first language (L1) might influence the sensorimotor encoding of new words and concepts. Further, research on embodiment and bilingualism suggests that second language semantic representations involve sensorimotor encoding, but because participants in these studies are already proficiently bilingual, the manner and degree to which L1 information influences newly learned word representations remain unclear. The experiments in this dissertation address a gap in this literature by examining embodiment in novel word learning while gradually introducing elements of L1 interference. Experiment 1 replicated and extended previous findings by Ottl et al. (2017), which explored the relationship between language and sensorimotor traces in novel word learning, in a fully online environment where participants learned novel words as names for novel (invented) animals. Experiment 2 introduced new, realistic visual features (wings and legs) to test if L1-associated vertical spatial cues would influence embodied processing involving new word representations. Experiment 3 further involved L1 representations by using images of recognizable animals to test the dominance of L1 concepts over newly formed word representations. The results of Experiments 1 and 2 suggest that embodied semantic representations can be formed nearly immediately during word acquisition, while Experiment 3 suggests that existing L1 semantic networks outperform such newly acquired representations. These findings provide insights into the rapid formation and activation of sensorimotor traces in language learning and highlight the need for further research into the interplay between L1 and L2 representations in embodied language processing. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The threat of climate change makes it increasingly important for biologists and the public to understand how organisms respond to temperature. The Metabolic Theory of Ecology (MTE) predicts that temperature should affect organism performance, with implications for species interactions and ecosystems that span disciplines including mathematics, chemistry, and biology. Temperature strongly impacts parasitic diseases of ectothermic hosts, with important implications for diseases of humans and wildlife. It is thus vital to examine metabolic responses of hosts and parasites to temperature in research laboratories and classroom education. I used MTE-based models to describe thermal responses of the pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and its amphibian hosts (Notophthalmus viridescens, eastern red-spotted newts). I measured newt breath rate and oxygen consumption (Chapter 2), as well as Bd zoospore swimming speed and critical thermal maximum (Chapter 3), to parameterize MTE-based models of host and parasite thermal performance. I conducted a controlled-temperature Bd infection experiment with newts collected from different latitudes (Chapter 4). In all three experiments, I also used temperature shifts to test for thermal acclimation effects. I hypothesized that newts and Bd would exhibit beneficial acclimation, but that Bd would acclimate to a new temperature faster because of its smaller mass and faster metabolism. I found little evidence of thermal acclimation effects on host performance, but my results suggested that the Bd either shows no acclimation or very rapid (< 3 minutes) acclimation responses. I also combined scholarship of research with scholarship of learning by developing an online teaching lab activity that introduces students to MTE-based thermal models by contrasting thermal responses in humans versus frogs (Chapter 5). I conducted a controlled experiment to compare learning outcomes for the online versus the face-to-face version of the activity (Chapter 6). Results varied, but students generally achieved similar learning outcomes in both versions of this activity. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this study is to assess how the use of therapy dogs affect elementary students' anxiety levels and attendance. This study adds to the existing research base on the impacts of therapy dogs and the association between anxiety and attendance. Specifically, children who have frequent absences often have challenges in multiple areas, as school plays a pivotal role in children's academic, emotional and social development. The use of canine therapy is becoming more common, as several studies indicate some promising positive associations, including improved reading skills, social skills and emotional advancements. The present study will add to the existing literature base by addressing the following questions: Does canine therapy play a role in reducing the anxiety levels and increasing attendance rates of elementary age students? It is hypothesized that anxiety levels will decrease as a result of canine therapy, as measured by the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (SCAS), while school attendance levels will increase. Participants include 13 5th grade students (N = 13 students, 7 in the experimental group, 6 in the control group). Participants were randomly assigned to be in the control group or the experimental group. This study utilizes a quantitative approach, with pre- and post assessments measuring levels of anxiety and attendance patterns within each group. The current study found a significant reduction in anxiety in the experimental group. Specifically, the overall mean Anxiety score decreased from 35.43 pre intervention to 19.71 post intervention. The paired sample t-test revealed a statistically significant reduction in scores, as indicated by the p-value of 0.015. However, absenteeism did not change significantly. The implications of these findings expand the literature on the effects of animal assisted interventions and the use of therapy dogs in educational settings. Moreover, the current study provides additional information and direction for subsequent research, specifically on the social-emotional impact therapy dogs may have with children in educational settings. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Farmed animal sanctuaries provide lifelong care to formerly farmed animals. Many strive to educate their community about farmed animals and promote more compassionate lifestyles, such as veganism. Important to this is cultivating empathy and concern for the well-being of individual farmed animals. Essential to well-being is agency, which is the capacity of a living being to engage with their environments and to make choices for themselves. Farmed animals outside of sanctuaries have had their agency systematically suppressed and denied. Sanctuary educators can bring awareness to this and inspire alternative, agency-centered relationships with not only farmed animals but all living beings. To aid in this endeavor, this practice-based dissertation included the development of a resource guide for sanctuary staff and volunteers about recognizing, supporting, and teaching about the agency of farmed animals in sanctuary education. Following Stephen Brookfield's (2021) Materials Development Dissertation outline, this paper describes the inspirations for creating these materials and the development process in detail. This process included inviting scholars and practitioners to review the materials and offer feedback, which is shared in this paper. This paper also reports on how the materials will be disseminated to have the most impact on the field. There is also discussion on the broader implications of this work in countering oppression and facilitating more equitable and compassionate ways of coexisting with all beings. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

College students face high levels of stress due to academic demands, financial pressures, and the challenges of adjusting to college life. College students are at an increased risk for mental health problems, with rates of depression, anxiety, and other mental health concerns higher among this population compared to their non-college-attending peers (Ibrahim, Kelly, Adams, & Glazebrook, 2013). Due to the high prevalence of mental health concerns in college students, there has been a consistent increase in suicide rates among young adults aged 18-25 during the past decade (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2021). Current interventions to aid in the mental health crises of college students involve peer support, Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], (2021). Despite the high rates of mental health problems and current evidenced based interventions, access to mental health services remains limited for many college students (The Center for Collegiate Mental Health, 2020). While the evidenced based treatments are effective treatments for individuals with psychopathology symptoms associated with anxiety and depression, it does not attempt to increase well-being (Gallagher et al., 2020). Numerous studies have established a robust link between positive emotions and wellbeing, with joy, gratitude, and contentment being key emotions associated with better mental health, improved physical health, and greater life satisfaction (Fredrickson, 2013). An alternative resource to aid in decreasing stress and eliciting positive emotions to increase well-being in college students is interacting with a therapy dog (Binfet, 2017). Therapy dogs, which are trained to provide comfort, support, and affection to those in need, have been shown to have a beneficial impact on emotional well-being (Fine, 2010). The current study investigated the effects of a single-session therapy dog intervention on college students' anxiety levels and positivity, using positive psychology as a theoretical background. The lack of mental health services for students makes therapy dogs a potential resource for enhancing well-being. A within-subjects true experimental design was used. Participants were undergraduate and graduate students from Hofstra University (n = 39; mean age = 20.00; SD = 2.32). Convenience sampling was used to minimize threats to internal validity. They completed pre-intervention and post-intervention measures using The Positive Affect Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) by Watson et al., (1988), and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory STAI by Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, (1983), scales before and immediately after interacting with a therapy dog for 10 minutes. Participants also completed an objective measure of labeling emotions at pre and post-test using The Open Affective Standardized Image Set (OASIS) by Kurdi, Lozano, & Banaji, (2017). Hypotheses were tested with descriptive statistics, paired measures t-test, and Cohen's d. Hypotheses were supported, finding that interacting with a therapy dog for 10 minutes during an Animal Assisted Activity (AAA) significantly increased college student's overall well-being, and decreased anxiety levels. Additionally, hypotheses were supported that interacting with therapy dogs leads to more positive ratings to neutral pictures. Clinical applications and implications are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

There are a growing number of zoo science degree programs in the US, designed to prepare entry level employees for a zoo or aquarium career that includes animal care, conservation, and public education. These bachelor's degree and associate degree programs include a focus on many areas of science as well as a variety of practical knowledge. Currently all programs are partnered with institutional members of the Association of zoos and Aquariums or the American Alliance of Museums, providing experiential learning internships as an essential part of their curriculums. This bounded case study of one university degree program used mixed methods to explore the perceptions of graduates, employers, and representatives of university program partner institutions regarding the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary in an entry level hire and how they are acquired in this program. Interviews and surveys and artifact coding revealed the subject areas, soft skills, and skills employers appreciate in an applicant. Results revealed that the university's curriculum is relevant and that a few adjustments in emphasis for some subjects are recommended by the researcher. The zoo industry's current focus on the core values of animal welfare for all taxa will necessitate a shift of focus in some curriculum elements. AZA's DEAI initiatives to enable institutions to mirror their surrounding communities will greatly impact the value of applicants with zoo science degrees, making it necessary for Higher Education to examine DEAI efforts in partnership with employer programming. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this non-experimental, descriptive study was to determine the effects that regular, brief visits with therapy dogs may have on the stress, anxiety, and university connection of college students who live in the residence halls via a qualitative research design involving the use of observations, questionnaires, and individual interviews. The study involved a sample (n = 6) of undergraduate students who engaged in observed visits with therapy dogs and their handlers over the course of three to four weeks. Students completed a pre-and-post Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS) questionnaire and a final interview. Based on the findings of this study, university connection provides one of the more significant areas for discussion and further investigation. Regular visits with therapy dogs appeared to have a stronger effect on stress reduction in participants than on anxiety levels. The findings of this study support the utilization of therapy dogs in stress reduction on a university campus. Even though the majority of participants perceived that the visits lessened their anxiety and stress, the DASS questionnaire did not support the self-assessment of at least one participant. Data collected from this study indicate that the two to four 20- to 30-minute visits over the course of four weeks had no consistent effects on anxiety. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Background: Equine facilitated learning (EFL) leadership programs have recently gained recognition as a novel approach to teaching leadership but are not widely known or researched. Methods: A study was conducted from the text of 13 selected EFL leadership program websites using qualitative thematic content analysis. Program characteristics, missions, values, and program goals and objectives were researched. Also investigated were program leadership themes listed on the 13 websites, their relationship to authentic, servant, situational, and transformational leadership theories, evaluation tools used by those theories, and how leadership incorporates into programs. Results: Program characteristics were inconsistent and may be confusing to potential participants. Programs do not specifically tie to leadership theories when teaching their classes, do not appear to be training leadership in specific ways, and lack evidence regarding how they, and their evaluations, relate to authentic, servant, situational, and transformational leadership theories. Conclusions: More consistency among programs and further research is recommended. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study assessed the impact of Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) on the mood profile, anxiety, mental well-being, and stress of university students. Stress has always been a widespread issue for university students, with the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbating the problem. The need for stress alleviation therapies to be further investigated within higher education is vital. AAT is a non-traditional therapeutic option of interventions that incorporates animals into the treatment plan to. To assess the effect of a 20-minute AAT session on the chosen variables (i.e., mood profile, anxiety, and mental well-being) among active university students, a quasi-experimental study was utilized with a pre-post single group design. The study discovered evidence in favor of the beneficial effects of AAT on the health of college students. Participants' levels of anxiety, stress, anger/frustration, and overall mental wellbeing significantly improved. The findings imply that AAT could be an effective strategy for fostering college students' mental health and wellness. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Therapy dogs are a valuable tool for students in the school system. The literature indicates therapy dogs are a supportive tool, from the perspective of teachers, students, parents, counselors, and the community, for mental health, social and emotional and academic needs. Research has provided evidence that principals and superintendents have the largest influence on strengthening existing practices and creating educational change which makes them key facilitators in the implementation of therapy dog programs within school districts. For this reason, the perception of principals and superintendents regarding how therapy dogs are being used in Pennsylvania public schools and their effectiveness was examined. Data was compiled and reported for each question on the survey tool to test all three research questions and hypotheses using an Independent Samples t-Test and Mann Whitney U Test. Participants were Pennsylvania public school superintendents and principals; they completed a survey via Google Forms. The findings of this study suggested a need for greater transparency, education, and policy regarding the benefits of therapy dog programs. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

It is well documented that implementing biosecurity on an animal farm is beneficial to the animal's health and wellness and in reducing the risk of production losses caused by diseases. However, compliance of biosecurity protocols has been shown to be low, and a lack of training has been blamed. A preliminary Systems Thinking model is presented to demonstrate how complex factors, including biosecurity, are intertwined with disease response such as Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI). Additionally, to increase the appeal of biosecurity education and better understand teaching methods specific to biosecurity, three research projects were completed. First, biosecurity workshops were developed and delivered to youth in Minnesota to encourage positive changes and long-term outcomes for healthier animals. Nine animal species were the focus of programs where learning gains increased by 38% (p[less than or equal to]0.001) on average and the participants retained the knowledge over time. Most participants indicated they would make one or two changes because of the workshop and follow-up evaluation indicated many did implement changes. By implementing the changes, they further demonstrated how youth can act as an agent of change within the family, farm, and community. Another study evaluated education methods for biosecure barn entry and exit protocols by assessing the number of errors, length of time to complete and how it affected biosecurity compliance over time. Three simulated farm entryways were constructed with a unique set of protocols assigned (Protocol) using common industry practices. A participant learned operating procedures in one of three educational modalities (Method): listen, read, or watch. When half of the participants returned after a lapse of time (> 1 month), they had to rely on their recall of the procedures. Education method had no effect on errors or time to complete biosecure procedures. However, the number of steps required and time between visits were found to be predictors of errors and time. Finally, three biosecurity games were developed to explore disease spread risk and to engage group-based discussion to devise strategies to mitigate the associated risks. In the games, simulated people and places each have a stock of particles, and a daily routine of interactions promotes the transfer of particles back and forth. The combinations of the pathogen source, its concentration, biosecurity protocols and sequence of events could be explored through game play. The concepts of the games were assessed to explore their impact and adaptability for use in specific farm systems, facilities, and audiences. Qualitative feedback occurred through participant feedback and observations. Quantitative data was collected to validate particle transfer during the games. Players of all backgrounds learned about the variability of particle movement through interactions that mirror the reality of day-to-day pathogenic particle transfer risk because of playing all three biosecurity game designs. In conclusion, biosecurity communications that encourage dialogue, learning and action proved to be impactful for the various participants. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Human-driven threats are changing biodiversity and impacting ecosystem services (i.e., nature's contributions to society, henceforth 'services'). The consequences of biodiversity change for ecosystems and people are hard to predict because the loss of one species can trigger secondary extinctions of additional species when species interact (e.g., many birds rely on insects for food). However, the consequences of these secondary extinctions for services remain underexplored. I aim to understand how services will respond to species losses and secondary extinctions. First, I extend robustness--a measure of the tolerance of food webs to secondary extinctions--to measure the impacts of secondary extinctions on services. I incorporate 7 services (e.g., waterfowl hunting) to 3 salt marsh food webs and simulate 12 extinction scenarios (e.g., losses of species vulnerable to pollution or ocean acidification). I find that food web and service robustness are highly correlated, and that robustness varies predictably across services. This result suggests that research on food web robustness may contain important insights for understanding and predicting service vulnerability. Next, I review and synthesize our understanding of how food web structure affects robustness, proposing recommendations and outstanding questions for future research. I find that food web structure influences robustness, and that structure-robustness relationships vary depending on the choice of food web structure and methodology used to quantify robustness. Then, I combine these insights about the structure-robustness relationships for food webs and the ecosystem service robustness metric I developed in my earlier work. I develop new predictions about the implications of structure for service robustness, testing them on services in 14 coastal food webs. I find that structure is a worthwhile indicator of service robustness, and that the context of species losses (i.e., which species are lost first) and the type of service affects the relationships between structure and service robustness. Finally, I use the concepts and data that underlie my research to co-develop a video game and educational case study focused on the food web and ecosystem services at Carpinteria Salt Marsh Reserve, finding that the game and case study lesson effectively develop students' system thinking skills. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The effectiveness of a pre-graduation animal assisted therapy internship site was investigated through an ethnographic, phenomenological methodology with mixed-methods components. A total of 12 participants who fit into either the category of supervisor, intern, or administrator involved in the animal assisted therapy practice, were interviewed. A research team analyzed the qualitative interview data and researcher participant field notes and came to a consensus of eight major themes: ranch environment, ranch modalities, community impact, counselor development, relationships, partnership, sense of purpose, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Past historical client data were analyzed (n = 47) to investigate effectiveness of the AAT internship cite through the lens of the clients. Historical client data was divided into three categories, dependent on the client's age and the assessment taken: Adult Self Report (ASR), Youth Self Report (YSR), and Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). A paired t-test was run for each assessment group to compare the means of the pre-assessment scores and the means of the post assessment scores for the total problems scale and anxiety problems scale. There was a statistically significant decrease in anxiety problems for the CBCL group. There was a marginally statistically significant decrease in total problems for the CBCL group. There were no significant results found for the YSR or ASR data. Client demographic findings and the statistically significant findings are discussed in relation to the qualitative themes. Implications for future research and counselor education are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

In education, therapy dogs are used in a variety of manners, such as, but not limited to, reading assistance programs, stress reduction visits, or welcome ambassadors after community trauma. This study was designed to explore multiple perspectives about the reasons for and interactions with therapy dogs in educational settings. The research questions were: (a) How are therapy dog programs or visits operationalized in educational settings? (b) What are the experiences of students and educators who engage in therapy dog programs or visits? The participants included representatives from nationally-recognized therapy dog programs, therapy dog handlers, site coordinators, and students. The qualitative, multi-case study design compared the perspectives of how and why therapy dogs are employed in educational settings, and what the participants described as their sense of interaction with therapy dogs. The findings suggested that therapy dog programs or visits contributed to positive academic and social or emotional needs of students. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This mixed-methods research study focuses on students', teachers', and parents' perceptions of the influence therapy dogs in schools can have on reluctant readers' attitudes about reading and motivation to read at school and at home as well as exploring changes in the participants' oral fluency. Eight student participants read to our school therapy dog in a 1:1 setting two times each week throughout a six-week period. Before beginning the sessions, each student completed a reading perception survey to serve as a baseline for each child's motivation to read. Each student was also interviewed, seeking information about each child's feelings about reading as well as thoughts that reflect how each child perceived themselves as a reader. Surveys were administered to the student participants' teachers in order to gain information regarding their perceptions about their students' reading motivation prior to and after the therapy dog reading sessions. Surveys were also given to the student participants' parents/guardians after the reading pilot to gain their perception about their children's reading motivation. Additionally, the researcher reviewed fluency assessment scores administered both before and after the reading pilot as part of their literacy intervention program to compare scores. Each child's motivation to read both before and after they read to the therapy dog were explored through the lens of the student, their teacher, their parent/guardian, and their literacy interventionist. The researcher examined their perceptions to determine if using therapy dogs in schools to supplement literacy intervention could be a worthwhile endeavor. Overwhelmingly, the students shared how reading to the therapy dog made them feel happier and more comfortable. The majority of parents/guardians observed increases in their child's interest in reading. The students' classroom teachers shared that the majority of their students were more motivated at the end of the pilot. The overall fluency data did not demonstrate a significant change for the majority of students. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The current quantitative, quasi-experimental study examined the efficacy of Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) in the treatment of anxiety among university students. Specifically, the study sought to determine if any differences in outcomes existed between those students who participated in AAT as compared to those who participated in traditional talk therapy (TTT), as measured using the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-Item Scale (GAD-7) (Spitzer et al., 2006) and the Anxiety (ANX) and Global Severity Index (GSI) scales of the Symptom Checklist--90--Revised Form (SCL-90-R) (Derogatis, 1994). Additionally, the current study sought to explore if differences in outcomes existed, for those participating in AAT, based on age, gender, or status of pet ownership. In exploring these areas of interest, the study sought to add to the growing body of research on AAT while offering practical insight and applications regarding its use to clinicians in university and college counseling centers as well as those who utilize AAT in other clinical settings. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study aims to build upon the prior findings of a study, "Paws for Intervention: Perceptions about the Use of Dogs in Schools" conducted by Zents et al. (2017). Zents et al., (2017) examined faculty and student perceptions regarding the effectiveness of an established school therapeutic dog has in terms of aiding their student's psychological well-being and the impact they have within the school climate. Participants were surveyed and interviewed using questions taken from the Zents et al. (2017) study the obstacles and opportunities of AAT within a school. In addition, items were added to the survey and interview to address additional information on the obstacles and opportunities on AAT within schools. Results of the study indicated school administration, teachers, and therapeutic staff believe that AAT in a school setting will have a positive effect on helping students succeed and they feel AAT is not utilized enough in their schools. Interestingly, results also indicated that there is no sufficient evidence to determine if schools that offer AAT and those that do not, believe AAT helps students succeed. Additionally, these results indicate that there is no sufficient evidence that non-teaching faulty believe AAT is more effective in helping students succeed than teaching faculty. The study exposed the obstacles of implementing AAT in schools that consisted of support, approval, fear, and animals' well-being and the opportunities consisting of academic, social-emotional support. Finally, the study suggests steps to implement an AAT program in a school setting which included training of an animal and presenting the AAT program to the school. While the study examined faculty perceptions of obstacles and opportunities of implementing an AAT program in a school setting and the steps of doing such, the differences in perceptions reveal the need for a clearer understanding how AAT can help students succeed in school. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

In contemporary education, multifaceted interventions are needed to engage students in the academic setting and therapy dogs are an approach to reach students' mental, physical, social, or emotional health needs. Moreover, therapy dogs have a direct correlation to student success and motivation. The implementation of therapy dogs on students impacts the successful outcomes for all due to the positive characteristics they possess, such as, but not limited to: their calming effect, love for all people, willingness to seek out and engage with individuals in need, and etc. (Alliance of Therapy Dogs, 2017a; Alliance of Therapy Dogs, 2017b; Mulvahill, 2019). Therapy dogs are a creative way to address issues a student may be having internally or externally that are impeding their ability to succeed in an inclusive of educational success. Research exists on the uses and benefits of therapy dogs, but this study fills in a research gap on the specific perception of the teachers when therapy dogs are implements in an elementary classroom. This study added to the knowledge about a specific gap in research about teachers' perceptions of the dogs in the classroom regarding students and the learning environment. When students are internally and externally well, research shows that they become better students, and therapy dogs assist students with mental, physical and emotional health, allowing them to reach socialization and academic goals in the classroom. The idea of therapy dogs within a school setting is a relatively new concept; therefore, the need for continual research showing the effects between student academic, behavioral, and mental impact using therapy dogs is needed. The quantitative data was collected via a Likert-scaled survey and the qualitative data via semi-structured interviews. The quantitative and qualitative data both showed they believed therapy dogs had a positive impact on the learning environment, behavior, and well-being of the students and classrooms when they were present. Both sets of data presented results that directly correlated with positive perceptions in regard to an increase in morale and work completion. They also showed teachers perceive student disruptions, discipline referrals, anxiety, stress, and self-isolating to decrease when therapy dogs are embedded in the classroom. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of ESA owners, examine how the ESA policy functions in the undergraduate college setting, and analyze how the disability services offices influenced the ESA policy and campus response to ESAs on two residential college campuses. The conceptual framework of the study was systems theory. A case study method was utilized to analyze 17 interviews of ESA owners, roommates and suitemates, and college personnel who engaged with the topic of ESAs. The analysis resulted in the identification of 5 major themes: Personification and High Intensity Relationships with ESAs (the positive bond between owner and animal similar to a human relationship), Caregiving Reciprocity (the mutual benefit of both the animal and student's survival), the Inconsistent Responsibility of ESA Owners (the different levels of care and responsibility from student to student), the Unwieldy Nature of ESAs in Both Policy and Practice (the difficulty of one office creating a policy and another department implementing it), and Prioritization of Student Mental Health (the tendency for others to support this challenging process because of care for mental health needs). Findings suggest there is a case for ESAs as a beneficial mental health solution for certain students who see improved mental health functioning related to daily caregiving responsibilities, but the study found certain distinct differences in how the ESA policy is written and what truly occurs before, during, and after the ESA is approved. Residence life staff have a uniquely challenging role in the process. Implications include fostering stronger ties between disability services and residence life, evaluating and promoting human social support and connection in conjunction with the social support provided by the animal, creating open lines of communication and feedback, and writing or revising the policy with clear recognition of the inherent limitations posed by the ESA system as a whole. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

American lobster, "Homarus americanus," H Milne Edwards 1837, are an ecologically, economically, and culturally valuable marine resource for the coastal communities in the Gulf of Maine (GoM). The American lobster fishery is the most valuable commercial fishery in the United States, supporting thousands of jobs and generating hundreds of millions in annual revenue. The GoM region, meanwhile, is warming three to four times faster than the rest of the world's oceans while its sea surface is also rapidly acidifying due to anthropogenic climate change. Lobsters are protected from predators, injury, and microbial intrusion by a resilient mineralized, chitin-based exoskeleton, the development of which is controlled by expression of key genes in sync with the molt cycle. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) were used to evaluate the effects of ocean warming (OW) and acidification (OA) on juvenile lobster shell mineralogy and epibiont abundance (chapter 2), and RNAseq and RT-qPCR to examine impacts of these stressors on gene expression (chapter 3). The combination of OW/OA induced the upregulation of genes pertaining to cuticle development, including genes that regulate calcification inhibition, while the concentration of calcium and magnesium in the shell was found to be significantly lower than in control lobsters. This suggests that shell formation is being affected and mineral formation may be inhibited by the combination of ocean warming and acidification. Genes critical to innate immunity trended toward downregulation under combined OW/OA, while epibiont abundance increased, indicating immune response may be suppressed and a dysbiosis of the epicuticle can occur under these conditions, which may increase the likelihood of disease. The work completed in chapters 2 and 3 was then used in chapter 4 to inform the development of a unique STEM module that was successful in increasing the climate literacy of middle school students by teaching climate change through the lens of a lobster. This dissertation expands our understanding of lobster biomineralization and gene expression under the stress of warming and acidification. The results may help support the continued management of the American lobster fishery in the face of worsening climate change. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Educators in inner-city schools face many challenges in meeting the needs of students. Examples of such issues that are specific to urban public schools include poverty, ethnic segregation, broad-spectrum discrimination, poor policies, low student performance, inexperienced teaching staff, and low expectations of students. The general problem is that the negative moods of inner-city school students affect their success in school, and it is difficult to find methods that can improve these students' moods by reinforcing positive changes. Dog therapy is one method that has been shown to improve students' well-being. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore whether teachers and students in an inner-city public school in California believed therapy dogs helped to improve their moods. The study was conducted over a 6-week period and included four methods of collecting data from six teachers including, interviews focus groups, observations, and student paragraphs. The students involved in the study ranged from grades K-12. Data were analyzed manually for themes, categories, and patterns. The findings indicate students' and teachers' moods improved noticeably when the dogs were present. Implications are that dog therapy could potentially reduce suspensions and dropouts if introduced in inner-city schools. Recommendations for practice include investing in dog therapy as part of social and emotional learning, making therapy dogs available, and bringing educators' personal dogs to school, or at a minimum, using a community dog therapy program. Increasing the number of studies using therapy dogs could contribute to inclusion, better attendance, and grades and may be effective in helping educators improve the general well-being of their students. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

People have long found comfort and support by interacting and sharing their lives with animals, and from this interest has led to a specific modality in human healthcare called Animal-Assisted Interactions (AAI). One application of AAI in higher education has gained much attention in the past 10 years. University campuses are a setting where suicide is the second leading cause of death and where college student mental health is in crisis. However, a robust understanding of the development, implementation, and impact of these programs in relation to these immense challenges remains vastly understudied. The purpose of this dissertation is to explore campus-based AAI programs for college student mental health, and as a three-paper manuscript, the information is presented in a progressive fashion. In the first paper, I describe a scoping review study in which I map the literature on campus-based AAI programs for college student mental health. In the second paper, I present the findings from a repeated, six-year cross-sectional study for academic years 2014/15 through 2019/20 using a secondary analysis of existing data from a campus-based AAI program. In the third paper I define a conceptual model of practice that I developed called the PACE--Practitioner, Animal, Client, and Environment--Model for AAI to frame the way AAI programs are established and applied. The implications presented from this study can inform future practice, education, policy, and research in the fields of social work, college student development, and AAI. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The incorporation of therapy animals into psychological treatment has proven to be an effective form of treatment option for college students, yet limited information exists around the implementation of animal assisted interventions within groupwork. The purpose of this study was to gain understanding of animal assisted group therapy (AAGT) on college campuses from the perspective of college mental health counselors. The phenomenon of AAGT was explored as it relates to the lived experiences of three college-based mental health practitioners. To understand the lived experiences of those who lead AAGT, a qualitative Hermeneutic phenomenological study employing a social constructionism lens was conducted. Each participant engaged in a semi-structured interview. Diekelmann et al.'s (1989) seven step process was used to analyze the dataset. Findings are categorized into three structural themes: adapting ethically, augmenting group treatment, and enhancing relationships. Connection was described by participants as the essence of AAGT and is represented throughout each theme. Implications for counselors, study limitations, and recommendations for future research are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Since 1984, many animal science postsecondary institutions had incorporated experiential learning into courses and programs, including equine programs. Even with the incorporated experiential learning, equine experts were finding students postgraduation were substandard with equine technical skills experiences. Although many studies had addressed equine programs' experiential learning benefits with surveys and pre- and posttesting, there remained a gap in the research on technical skills experiences of postsecondary equine students. This dissertation research study explored the experiential learning of equine technical skills for students in postsecondary education, especially related to collecting vital signs and correctly tying a horse. The research question was: "How do students describe their experiential learning with equine technical skills, specifically related to collecting vital signs and correctly tying a horse?" The study design was basic qualitative; focusing on exploring the experiences of current postsecondary equine science students in the United States who had completed a hands-on equine course with a "C" or 70% in the course or better. The data collected through interviews and an online questionnaire were analyzed using a thematic approach to identify themes across the data. Open and axial coding found that the majority of the participants describe their experiential learning with three components: lecture, practice, and test. The participants' descriptions of hands-on experiential learning with collecting vital signs and correctly tying a horse was summarized by first attending lectures accompanied with PowerPoint presentations or handouts, followed by hands-on practice, and ending with practical and written tests. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Researchers determined if trained facility dogs impacted school climate by looking at three elementary schools within a single state in the Southeastern United States. This phenomenological, qualitative study used interview data to research educators' lived experiences and the use of facility dogs in elementary schools to include the perceptions regarding facility dogs' influence on school climate. Interview data were analyzed to determine if school facility dogs promote a positive school climate by conducting an interpretative phenomenological analysis to develop codes, categories, and themes. The researchers found that using facility dogs should be considered as an intervention to promote a positive elementary school climate through four themes: relationships, community, emotional understanding, and the calming effects of dogs. The instrumentation and triangulation supported the trustworthiness of the findings. Based on the results, the researchers developed a conceptual framework, The Story-Tate Conceptual Framework for Facility Dogs and School Climate. This study adds to the scientific body of knowledge for educational leaders, principals, educators, and service/facility dogs to support that a school-wide facility dog is an intervention that promotes elementary school climate. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Researchers determined if trained facility dogs impacted school climate by looking at three elementary schools within a single state in the Southeastern United States. This phenomenological, qualitative study used interview data to research educators' lived experiences and the use of facility dogs in elementary schools to include the perceptions regarding facility dogs' influence on school climate. Interview data were analyzed to determine if school facility dogs promote a positive school climate by conducting an interpretative phenomenological analysis to develop codes, categories, and themes. The researchers found that using facility dogs should be considered as an intervention to promote a positive elementary school climate through four themes: relationships, community, emotional understanding, and the calming effects of dogs. The instrumentation and triangulation supported the trustworthiness of the findings. Based on the results, the researchers developed a conceptual framework, The Story-Tate Conceptual Framework for Facility Dogs and School Climate. This study adds to the scientific body of knowledge for educational leaders, principals, educators, and service/facility dogs to support that a school-wide facility dog is an intervention that promotes elementary school climate. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Animals have long been used as comparative models for adult human speech perception. However, few animal models have been used to explore developmental speech perception questions. This dissertation encourages the use of domestic dogs as a behavioral model for speech perception processes. Specifically, dog models are suggested for questions about 1) the role and function of underlying processes responsible for different aspects of speech perception; and 2) the effect of language experience on speech perception processes. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 examined the contributions of auditory, attention, and linguistic processing skills to infants' difficulties understanding speech in noise. It is not known why infants have more difficulties perceiving speech in noise, especially single-talker noise, than adults. Understanding speech in noise relies on infants' auditory, attention, and linguistic processes. It is methodologically difficult to isolate these systems' contributions when testing infants. To tease apart these systems, I compared dogs' name recognition in nine- and single-talker background noise to that of infants. These studies suggest that attentional processes play a large role in infants' difficulties in understanding speech in noise. Chapter 5 explored the reasons behind infants' shift from a preference for vowel information (vowel bias) to consonant information (consonant bias) in word identification. This shift may occur due to language exposure, or possessing a particular lexicon size and structure. To better understand the linguistic exposure necessary for consonant bias development, I tested dogs, who have long-term linguistic exposure and a minimal vocabulary. Dogs demonstrated a vowel bias rather than a consonant bias; this suggests that a small lexicon and regular linguistic exposure, plus mature auditory processing, do not lead to consonant bias emergence. Overall, these chapters suggest that dog models can be useful for broad questions about systems underlying speech perception and about the role of language exposure in the development of certain speech perception processes. However, the studies faced limitations due to a lack of knowledge about dogs' underlying cognitive systems and linguistic exposure. More fundamental research is necessary to characterize dogs' linguistic exposure and to understand their auditory, attentional, and linguistic processes to ask more specific comparative research questions. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The primary question of my dissertation is, "Does venom possess a microbiome specific to it as an ecosystem, and why?" Given the limited amount of literature on venom microbiomes, I selected the California Cone Snail, "Californiconus californicus" as a proposed, wild model system for studying venom-microbe interactions in the process of investigating hypothesized microbial interactions with host venom. First, I present a data-driven approach for how sampling sites of venomous animals of interest can be selected in conjunction with the current trend to rely on anecdotal information. This work integrates curated museum collections, crowd-sourced data through digital mediums, knowledge through scientific literature, and personal research. This segment delves deeper into our understanding of "C. californicus" across space and time, dating back to the Pleistocene. We identify relationships between shell morphology and temperature, contributing foundational knowledge for this species and prospective context of venom microbiome coevolution. Second, I characterize the seawater and sediment coastal microbial ecology of the initial known sampling site (Puerto Nuevo, Mexico) in which this species is commonly found. We sampled several sites along a gradient of exposure to urbanization (0.45 km) and characterized the core microbial communities for archaea, bacteria, and microbial eukaryotes using 16S and 18S amplicon sequencing. While only representing one time point and location, our experimental design allows us to demonstrate consistency in the literature in that we identify functionally relevant microbial taxa specific to different environmental types and distance. This work contributes as a preliminary example for the determination of how and where microbes in the venom may be sourced from the wild. Third, I outline the main findings of the venom microbiome for "C. californicus." Model organisms used today are common, simplified points of reference for downstream application. The California Cone Snail is a commonly found neogastropod along the California-Baja coast by the 100s. It can be cultured and maintained in a laboratory, acting well for experiments in the wild and "in vivo" or "in vitro". We sampled "C. californicus" for three major sites for geographical variation: Puerto Nuevo, San Diego, and Monterey. We sampled summer, winter, and summer again, as well as three consecutive days in Puerto Nuevo for temporal variation. We sampled adult and eggs to compare microbial communities across life stage. We then compared venom microbial communities in a lab setting by testing for different hydrostatic pressures, axenic conditions, and exposure to prey. In summary, we find a specific microbial community (16S and 18S) found in and along the venom gland when compared to other environments, tissues, and conditions. Finally, I tie extensions of science outreach together with scientific practice through communication, education, policy, and the first venom-microbe consortium. These initiatives act as proof-of-concept for strengths in democratically practiced open-source, interdisciplinary research through inclusion across demographics and educational and professional stages. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Recent educational studies have shown increasing lack of interest and participation of youth (ages 10-14 years old) in various STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) fields in the U.S. The decline in the number of youth choosing to study STEM fields in higher education and the resulting lack of STEM professionals in the society has drastic economic impacts. Therefore, it is critical to introduce youth to quality STEM education that engages them with science practices and triggers their interest and curiosity in order to increase their participation in those fields. To address this issue, the aim of this study is to introduce a new ecological topic called soundscape ecology to middle school youth and high school students who are visually impaired. This study will use an informal summer camp setting to develop conceptual understanding, interest and identity in STEM via soundscape ecology. Soundscape ecology is a new emerging science that takes a holistic approach toward conservation biology and bridges across all STEM content areas. The focus of soundscape ecology is on the acoustic environment that is composed of different sounds originating from a variety of sources. The current study presents a combination of ecological and educational research. It includes an independent field research in soundscape ecology which led to the design of the soundscape ecology curriculum. The findings of the soundscape research supported the negative sonic and non-sonic impact of highways on bird biodiversity and acoustic diversity. It provided evidence of how forest interior specialist birds are attracted to habitats furthest from the highways because low frequency road noise masked their vocalizations and interrupted their communication. In addition, this study contains three qualitative research studies on the cognitive and affective development of participants in the soundscape ecology summer camp. The results of the qualitative studies show that the soundscape ecology curriculum is a great fit for an informal summer STEM camp setting and can be adapted for a variety of audiences with different abilities. Furthermore, the natural context of the soundscape camp allowed participants to engage with soundscape ecology in a natural setting, promoted their engagement with authentic technology and scientific practices, and supported collaboration with their peers and soundscape ecologists. Participants in the soundscape summer camp gained cognitive and affective development as they developed a more comprehensive understanding of the complexities involved in soundscape ecology. Importantly, the experience also broadened and deepened the students' interests in science and being a scientist, as they developed a stronger scientific identity. The findings of this study have implications for STEM curriculum designers, researchers and informal education practitioners working on area of environmental education, youth interest development, conceptual understanding construction and science identity development. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this nested and layered case study was to explore the experiences of students participating in a reading to dog program. Ten student participants (nine were struggling readers) were enrolled in a sixty minute per week, ten-week reading to dog program. Participants completed a motivation to read interview and an informal reading inventory (for fluency and comprehension) and parents of the participants were interviewed before and after the ten-week program. During the reading to dog program, the participants read leveled and library books for 30 minutes to an assigned dog, with dog handlers and volunteer listeners in the reading room. The researcher took observational and anecdotal notes throughout the program. The data from the assessments and observational notes were analyzed for patterns and themes. Participants' enthusiasm, resilience and parent perceptions of satisfaction with the program were evident themes. One participant had improvements in all areas: motivation to read, fluency, and comprehension, whereas the other participants' scores were variable from the beginning to the end of the program but there were more gains than losses. This case study revealed the positive nature of a reading to dog program, the participants' enjoyment of the program, and the positive experiences of the parents. Due to the qualitative nature of exploring this case, it is unclear how the reading to dog program impacts students' reading skills. A call for future research is offered for studies that can determine what factors contribute to improving students' reading skills in a reading to dog program. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This project explored the phenomena of school based mental health practitioners' experience with animal assisted therapy. The purpose of this study was to begin to identify and understand the existing gap between a promising practice and a profession that could be aided by its use. Analysis of qualitative data gathered from semi-structured interviews investigated how the attitudes of school based mental health providers were influenced by their perceptions of its potential benefits, barriers to use, and challenges of implementation within the elementary school setting. Eleven school based mental health providers participated in semi structured interviews using video conferencing. Qualitative analysis and coding (Saldana, 2013) yielded three themes: (1) the experience of being a provider, (2) perception of how animals provide support, and (3) knowledge. Participants universally viewed animal assisted therapy as a beneficial practice that would benefit a majority of their clients. However, the key finding in this study was the limited knowledge of animal assisted therapy demonstrated by school based mental health providers. Participants had limited knowledge of the defining features of animal assisted activities, resources for implementation, the positive impact on student engagement, how to apply the practice to their work, how to overcome challenges, and how to effectively sell the idea to their school communities. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Health professions education (HPE) must prepare future health professionals for learning from peers who bring diverse prior experience to their professional practice. Health professions students have many opportunities to learn from others with greater expertise, but whether and how students value other students' prior experiences as a source of learning is unknown. The objective of this study is to understand how veterinary students at public universities perceive sharing prior horsemanship experiences as a way to learn from each other in the context of an equine medicine course. Verbal sharing of others' experiences has been observed as a means for nursing students to learn from fellow students, but studies of vicarious learning in HPE have not considered personal factors or educational environment surrounding sharing prior experience as a learning strategy. This sequential exploratory mixed methods study of veterinary students examines prior horsemanship experience, perceived usefulness of learning from others' prior experience, as well as motivational and environmental factors that may influence sharing or valuing of prior experience. Sharing of horsemanship experiences was studied through qualitative interviews with recent graduates of a public veterinary college. A survey of veterinary students across the U.S. rated the usefulness of scenarios where horsemanship knowledge was shared in classroom and clinical contexts and reported whether they would be willing or likely to share their knowledge in similar contexts. Usefulness and receptivity to sharing were then evaluated in separate multiple regression models comprised of potential predictors such as achievement goal orientation, knowledge sharing self-efficacy, career interests, horsemanship experience, and having been asked to share by an instructor. Integrated findings demonstrate how sharing of students' prior experience is viewed and what might constitute optimal educational environments that facilitate peer sharing. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This research was a phenomenological study that explored the research question: How do school counselors experience working alongside therapy dogs in their schools? The research sub-questions supporting the main question were: (a) What benefits do school counselors experience working with therapy dogs at their schools? and (b) What challenges do school counselors experience working with therapy dogs at their schools? Seven school counselors participated in this study. Data analysis revealed the textural themes related to school counselors' experiences of working alongside a school therapy dog: (a) the school communities helped to develop a supportive welcoming for the therapy dogs, (b) the therapy dogs promoted improved emotions in students and others who interacted with them, (c) the therapy dogs promoted chances to connect with others, (d) the therapy dogs promoted opportunities for teachable moments, (e) the therapy dogs promoted improvement in student effort in school, and (f) challenges in working with the therapy dogs were minor and easily overcome. Interpretations of the textural themes supported the structural themes related to the school counselors' experiences: (a) the therapy dogs promoted chances for a positive school climate, and (b) the therapy dogs promoted chances for improved job effectiveness. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Using a quasi-experimental non-equivalent control group design, this quantitative study sought to determine whether or not the presence of a professional therapy dog in a Truant's Alternative and Optional Education Program (TAOEP) helps to increase one's sense of belongingness in school and class attendance rates among TAOEP students. Maslow's theory of human motivation serves as the theoretical framework and suggests that an increased sense of belongingness helps at-risk students overcome social barriers that prevent them from reaching academic goals such as graduating. Recent research shows that animals provide support for many at-risk populations and indicates that the presence of a dog in a TAOEP classroom could help students build the sense of belongingness needed to succeed academically. Twenty-three racially and ethnically diverse TAOEP students, ranging in age from 16-21, were the participants in this four-week study. Sense of belongingness and attendance were the dependent variables, and the level of interaction with the professional therapy dog was the independent variable. Pre- and post-assessments were administered to the treatment and control groups to determine whether there were differences in sense of school belongingness and attendance, pre- and post-intervention. An open-ended question was asked of those in the treatment group to gage their feelings about having a dog in their classroom. ANOVA tests were conducted to analyze results and interactions between the variables. Various limitations contributed to the final results and all data was determined to be insignificant. However, a sense of school belongingness among students in the treatment group did increase based upon the responses to the open-ended question about the benefits of a dog's presence to students. Replication of this study is recommended and several suggestions have been made on the appropriate modifications to make. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The Problem: The study examined the difference that animal interactions had on the reading comprehension growth skills of students in the seventh grade. Method: A quasiexperimental study was conducted with two seventh-grade classes at William Howard Taft Middle School. One class received daily 20-minute animal interaction experiences for 5 days. Following the week of animal interactions in fall 2007, students in both classrooms were given the Degrees of Reading power (DRP) test. The individual results for the two groups were compared to the individual results for the spring 2007 DRP test. An independent samples t test was used to analyze the differences in scores between the two groups. Results: The hypothesized significant difference in reading comprehension growth, as measured by the DRP test, between the seventh-grade students who had classroom exposure to animals and those who did not have classroom animal interactions was not supported. Analysis of the t test suggested no statistically significant difference between the two participating groups and their growth in reading comprehension, as measured by the DRP. Additional findings based on test scores suggest no statistically significant difference in test scores by gender, ethnicity, or language proficiency level. Anecdotal qualitative data indicated an impact on student attitudes toward school participation and attendance. (Contains 11 tables.) [Ph.D. Dissertation, Alliant International University.]

This study is an examination of animal-assisted therapy in an attempt to explore the ways it may serve as reading intervention program for struggling readers. Due to the low rate of literacy in the U.S., children are often put into reading intervention programs where they are required to read to an adult; potentially creating anxiety that may act as a deterrent to reading regularly, and thus contributing to the condition of aliteracy, that is, possessing the basic skills to read yet having no desire to do so. The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the ways in which remedial readers respond to the activity of reading aloud to a dog at the resource reading lab at a suburban, public, elementary school in Northern California. Through observations, interviews and surveys, the feelings, perceptions and beliefs of four students and their parents, and the two literacy assistants at the research site are determined. Appendixes include: non-participant observation conducted; semi-structured audio-taped interviews; and questionnaires given to participating families. [M.S. Research Paper, Dominican University of California.]

This study examines the socio-emotional and cognitive impact of a three-month literacy centered humane education program on one second-grade classroom of socio-culturally and linguistically diverse children using a qualitative research design. Twenty-five children, ages 7-8 years, participated in a humane education program that focused on developing descriptive profiles for shelter animals (e.g., dogs, cats) awaiting adoption at their community's local animal shelter located in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. The children worked together with the teacher researcher to generate and publish a descriptive paragraph to advertise the adoption of one "difficult to place" dog or cat each week. The children's work was published weekly on the animal shelter's website. The data collection procedures were embedded in the classroom's weekly literacy instruction and occurred within the general education classroom. This study revealed three primary findings. First, the children with pets considered their pets to be family members. Analysis of the children's perspectives on pet topics within their family systems revealed the role of non-human animals as social agents within some children's moral socialization. Second, the children who participated in the twelve-week humane education program exercised empathetic capacity building. This was evidenced through their individual and collective responses to the focal shelter animals over time. Lastly, an examination of the processes by which the children related to the shelter animal topic illuminated a socially distributed account of empathetic development. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This case study explored dog-assisted reading with three middle-school special education students in a self-contained alternative school. Data collection conducted over a 15-month period included observations, interviews, and artifacts. In this study, reading with therapy dogs and their handlers, helped three adolescent readers with their reading motivation, engagement, and literacy processes/behaviors. The students' engagement with the dog, the role of the dog handler, and the role of the context all impacted students in different and multiple ways. The students read to the dogs and liked engaging with them--this calmed and interested each student and created a purpose for reading. Concurrently, through the handler's vocabulary supports, questions, comments, and book choices, the students also became more attentive to their own reading performance. Students began to self-monitor, self-correct, and discuss stories. As the study transitioned from an office setting to the classroom, the dog and handler continued as reading partners, now with a growing audience of additional students and staff. Students talked and interacted with books in a way that bypassed reading level, behavior issues and computer-based comprehension questions, ultimately forming a community of readers. Recommendations encourage school personnel to intentionally structure and integrate dog-assisted reading teams for literacy learning, with training sessions for handlers to learn how to engage with books, listen carefully to readers, and notice when students need additional support. Professional development can help classroom teams better integrate dog-assisted reading and literature-based instructional approaches. Importantly, providing a wide range of reading materials during dog-assisted time can support students to engage as readers in multiple ways. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Existing research on human-animal interactions has established that engaging with an animal may reduce anxiety-like behaviors (Acheson et al., 2013; Sobota, Mihara, Forrest, Featherstone, & Siegel, 2015; Yates, 2012) and lower physiological response in stressful situations (Campo & Uchino, 2013). This quantitative research study expanded upon the literature, taking a biopsychosocial approach to examine whether the presence of a therapy dog influenced heart rate and performance on a numerical operations test for undergraduate college students. Results suggest that people in the group with a therapy dog present did not exhibit lower heart rates or complete more math problems than the group without a therapy dog present. Pet attachment was not a moderating variable in the experience of anxiety for group members in the condition with a therapy dog present. Post hoc analysis revealed no significant difference in the expression of performance anxiety between males and females, regardless of level of interaction with the dog. Such findings contradict most research on human-animal interactions that cite decreases in physiological arousal (Campo & Uchino, 2013; Nepps, Stewart, & Bruckno, 2014) and decreases in reports of anxious feelings in the presence of an animal (Nepps et al., 2014; Torres, Arnold, & Shutt, 2016). Findings provide insight for a biopsychosocial perspective on researching the intersection of human-animal interactions and education. Results suggest that benefits from interaction with a therapy dog may differ for humans in environments involving cognitive tasks versus situations implicating emotion regulation. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Adolescence is marked by a period of stress with a portion of these individuals experiencing problems with anxiety. There are physical and psychological benefits of using animal-assisted therapy (AAT) for decreasing anxiety, however, the research on this is limited. The current study expands on the AAT literature by studying the additive effects of AAT along with the frontline treatment for anxiety, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). CBT only and CBT + AAT treatment groups followed a structured protocol focused on psychoeducation and practicing coping skills for anxiety using groups of 2 to 4 participants in the school setting. Single subject design and nonparametric statistics were used to analyze treatment data on measures of anxiety and therapeutic alliance from ten students ages 10 to 15 across two school districts. Although the data on measures and therapeutic alliance did not approach significance, observable trends show CBT and AAT may be beneficial in decreasing anxiety symptoms for some students. The nature of self-report data and the small number of participants were limitations of the study. Overall this study used comparison groups to show that therapy dogs are not a hindrance to therapy and may be beneficial for some students. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Insects are the most abundant and diverse group of animals on Earth. Though as a group they do far more ecological good than harm, previous studies have shown that human attitudes toward insects are mainly negative. Attitudes have affective (emotions) and cognitive (beliefs, mental representations) components that interact to influence behavior. Negative attitudes toward insects are associated with negative affect such as disgust and fear, and can have negative consequences, such as a lack of conservation funding. In addition, negative attitudes can cause people to avoid insects and/or feel distress when insects are present, prompting a disconnection between the public and the insect world. To explore affective responses to insects, Chapter Two focuses on the emotion of disgust. Disgust is associated with avoidance of objects that cause sickness (e.g. rotten meat) or undesirable social conduct (e.g. moral disgust). Disgust is partitioned into distinct domains--pathogen, moral, sexual, etc. To determine whether disgust stimulated by insects belongs in a unique domain, incoming freshmen at a large public university were surveyed (Chapter Two). Survey items pertained to moral, pathogen, and insect-specific disgust. Factor analyses indicate that insect disgust and pathogen disgust are part of the same construct, unique from moral disgust. This implies that insects are perceived with the same feelings of disgust felt for pathogens. To explore cognition associated with insects, Chapter Three and Appendix One focus on mental models of insects and other arthropods. Mental models are internal representations of external entities that are used to reason, make inferences, conduct thought experiments, and anticipate future events. Drawings reflect important qualities of mental models including knowledge categorization and organization. Drawings of insects were collected from participants with high and low expertise in entomology. Salient insect features were indexed and principal components analysis applied to detect underlying patterns. Two distinct components emerged--(1) a non-winged "crawling" insect, and (2) a legless winged "flying" insect, implying that flying and crawling insects are perceived as distinct from each other (Chapter Three). A similar analysis of children's drawings of insects also showed a distinction between crawling and flying insects (Appendix One). Finally, to explore the interaction between affective and cognitive responses to insects, drawings of "disgusting" and "not disgusting" insects from participants sampled in Chapter Three were compared. Participants were also surveyed to gain a quantitative measure of disgust associated with insects. Experts exhibited significantly lower disgust responses than novices. Additionally, the inclusion of legs on drawings of insects deemed not disgusting correlated negatively with disgust. In contrast, the inclusion of legs on drawings of disgusting insects correlated positively with disgust. This suggests that crawling insects may be regarded as being more disgusting than flying insects. A multiple linear regression was conducted on the not disgusting insect drawings to determine whether drawing a crawling insect as well as one's expertise level, could predict insect-associated disgust. Approximately 35% of the variation in disgust was attributable to subject group (expertise) and the degree to which drawings aligned with the crawling insect model. In addition, this study also demonstrates that examining drawings of insects can be a useful tool to shed light on affect and cognition associated with insects. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Humane education (HE) is a specialized niche in higher education and adult learning. HE provides a curricular framework positioning environmental ethics, animal protection, human rights, media literacy, culture, and change processes as the nexus for understanding and inspiring social change. Research-derived experiences illuminating how educators conceptualize and implement HE in U.S. schools are absent from the scholarly literature. Facing this gap, practitioners and administrators of HE programs cannot access nor apply research-derived practices to inform instruction. To address this gap, a conceptual framework was advanced weaving together HE teaching experience, Freirean philosophy, hyphenated selves, reflection-in-action, transformative learning, and transformative education to explore and understand what it means to be a practitioner teaching through the lens of HE in U.S. primary, secondary, and postsecondary classrooms. A qualitative, multicase study was designed wherein purposeful and maximum variation sampling resulted in the recruitment of 9 practitioners working in Kindergarten to postsecondary contexts. Eight practitioners were alumni of HE programming, and 1 practitioner engaged self-study of HE pedagogy. Each bounded system included the HE practitioner, his or her classroom context, and local school community. Interviews, document review, within-case analysis, and cross-case analysis resulted in key themes illuminating the need to design a comprehensive system of field based learning and ongoing professional support to benefit HE practitioners. A policy recommendation is provided to shape programing, policy development, and resource allocation to improve and sustain HE as a field of study and professional practice. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Environmental stewardship is an underlying theme in outdoor education (OE) and environmental education (EE), but maintaining natural areas in a sustainable balance between conservation and preservation requires knowledge about how natural areas respond to anthropogenic disturbance. My five-part study investigated the effects of disturbance on aquatic macroinvertebrates caused by frequent in-stream activity by students during OE stream classes. I conducted an observational study of stream classes at Heartland Outdoor School (henceforth, Heartland) in Morrow County, Ohio during April to June and September to October, 2012 to determine the methods by which students explore the stream. Subsequently, I conducted a year-long disturbance study from February 2013 to January 2014 at two sites (one site impacted by student activity and one site unimpacted by student activity) in upper Alum Creek on the Heartland property following a modified BACI design. The year-long study enabled analysis of trends in the macroinvertebrate community in three distinct channel units (i.e., riffles, runs, and pools) throughout the year including two disturbance periods (mid-April to early June and mid-September to mid-November) when stream classes are regularly active at the impacted site. Results showed evidence of student-induced disturbance for taxa richness in riffles and taxa richness and "Chironomidae" abundance in runs. No direct evidence of student-induced disturbance was found in pools. During April and May, 2014 I conducted a six-week substrate movement and rock colonization study in upper Alum Creek to investigate the extent to which students cause rock movement and the extent to which rocks are colonized by macroinvertebrates at the impacted site compared to the unimpacted site. Results showed that in base flow conditions students caused rocks to move upstream, laterally, and vertically at the impacted site to a greater extent than hydrologic activity caused at the unimpacted site. Macroinvertebrate abundance and richness were significantly greater (p<0.05) at the unimpacted site than at the impacted site at the end of the study. Also in May, 2014 I conducted a one-week disturbance study to examine within-riffle and among-riffle effects of student activity on the macroinvertebrate community. Results showed no significant effect (p>0.05) of student activity for the within-riffle study, but did reveal greater percent clingers at the unimpacted riffle than at the impacted riffle in the among-riffles study. During June, 2015 I conducted a randomized block design experimental disturbance study in three tributaries of upper Alum Creek to investigate the effects of experimentally manipulating the stream substrate. Results showed no negative effect of the experimental substrate disruption on the macroinvertebrate community and actually revealed an increase in macroinvertebrate abundance and percent Leuctridae following the experimental disruption. Finally, I combined information gleaned from the field studies and observational study to develop the first phase of an index of student-induced disturbance (ISID) to serve as a predictive model for the effects of human in-stream activity on aquatic macroinvertebrates. In this first phase, the ISID takes into account student activity, time, and area of the disturbed site to determine a single numerical value representing the level of human impact. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Within the book of Job, the interlocutors (Job, the friends, and Yahweh) seem to largely ignore one another's arguments within their dialogical discourse. This observation leads some to propose that the dialogue lacks conceptual coherence. I argue that the interlocutors tangentially attend to previously stated points-of-view and attempt to persuade their counterparts through the employment of metaphor. I use the theoretical approach of Conceptual Metaphor Theory to assess metaphorical expressions that evoke two distinct conceptual domains, the target domain SPEECH and the source domain ANIMALS. Beyond explaining the individual metaphorical expressions, I show how SPEECH metaphors cohere with one another throughout the dialogue, most perceptibly in the expressions of WORDS ARE WIND. The nature of Job's speech, whether it is acceptable or dangerous, is a regular topic for Job and his friends. Their disagreements are apparent in my comparison of their SPEECH metaphors. ANIMAL metaphors also cohere, particularly perceptible in the JOB IS A PREDATORY ANIMAL metaphor. In these cases, the dialogue demonstrates intentional picking-up on previously stated arguments. By surveying the dialogue for a target domain (SPEECH) and a source domain (ANIMALS), I show that both are significant for evaluating the discourse. The survey of a target provides insight into the overt topic of their debate, the worth of words in this case. The survey of a source provides a means for evaluating the speakers' assumptions, since metaphorical construal is grounded in shared source knowledge. I also argue that the animal images in the divine speeches are not metaphorical, in spite of recent scholarly interpretation that reads them as such. Rather, Yahweh presents the wild animals as a Sage in order to question the negative status of wild animals that Job and his friends assume in their significations of PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS. This is especially apparent in Yahweh's strophes on the lion and the wild donkey, both of which appear multiple times in the metaphorical expressions of Job and his friends. The interlocutors use metaphorical elaboration, extension, and questioning in their competing construals of the world and Job's suffering. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Literacy acquisition is imperative to successful academic progress and to successful participation in our society. Students with identified learning disabilities are often among those who struggle to acquire literacy skills. The following dissertation shares the results of a reading intervention study in which nine students with identified learning disabilities practiced guided oral reading with the researcher-teacher in the presence of a certified therapy dog. There were 10 reading sessions, each lasting 10-15 minutes. A matched group of eight students with identified learning disabilities practiced guided oral reading with the researcher-teacher but did not have the therapy dog present during the reading sessions. Achievement data were collected through pre- and post-testing on the Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT-4) and the Basic Reading Inventory (BRI), which is a locally used assessment of reading skills. Measures to assess changes in student's feelings of self-efficacy and anxiety about reading included the Reader Self-Perception Scale (RSPS) and an anxiety scale. Pre- and post-intervention interviews, parent questionnaires and reading journals provided additional data. The results indicate that students who participated in the intervention demonstrated statistically significant increases in reading skills. In addition, the results suggest that reading in the presence of a therapy dog increases feelings of self-efficacy, decreases anxiety and increases students' motivation to read. The final section of this dissertation explores a range of explanations for the effectiveness of incorporating a therapy dog into guided oral reading sessions and includes a discussion of the contexts in which animals, including certified therapy dogs, may be utilized in special education instruction to support academic progress for students with identified learning disabilities. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

To protect and conserve the Earth's biodiversity and ecosystem services, it is important not only to understand and conserve species and ecosystems, but also to instill an understanding and appreciation for biodiversity and ecosystem services in the next generations of both scientists and citizens. Thus, this dissertation combines research into the ecology and identity of large bivalves at Midway Atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) with research on pedagogical strategies for integrating mathematics into undergraduate biology education. The NWHI is one of the few remaining large, mainly intact, predator-dominated coral reef ecosystems and one of the world's largest marine protected areas. Previous bivalve studies focused on the black-lipped pearl oyster, "Pinctada margaritifera," which was heavily harvested in the late 1920s, has not recovered, and is now a candidate species for restoration. First, I combined remote sensing, geographic information systems, SCUBA, and mathematical modeling to quantify the abundance, spatial distributions, and filtration capacity of large epifaunal bivalves at Midway Atoll. These bivalves are most abundant on the forereef outside the atoll, but densities are much lower than reported on other reefs, and Midway's bivalves are unlikely to affect plankton abundance and productivity inside the lagoon. Second, I used molecular techniques and phylogenetic reconstructions to identify pearl oysters ("Pinctada") from Midway Atoll as "P. maculata," a species not previously reported in Hawaii. As a small morphologically cryptic species, "P. maculata" may be a native species that has not been collected previously, a native species that has been identified incorrectly as the morphologically similar "P. radiata," or it may be a recent introduction or natural range extension from the western Pacific. Finally, I review science education literature integrating mathematics into undergraduate biology curricula, and then present and evaluate a computer inquiry module using learner-centered teaching strategies to introduce structured population (matrix) models in an upper-division ecology course. Using pre- and post-test surveys and student interviews, I concluded that students accomplished the module's learning goals: to use matrix models to assess and protect populations and to better appreciate the importance and uses of mathematics in ecology and conservation. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Recent psycholinguistic findings showed that (a) a multi-modal phonetic training paradigm that encodes visual, interactive information is more effective in training L2 learners' perception of novel categories, (b) decreasing the acoustic variance of a phonetic dimension allows the learners to more effectively shift the perceptual weight towards this dimension, and (c) using an implicit word learning task in which the words are contrasted with different lexical tones improves naive listeners' categorization of Mandarin Chinese tones. This dissertation investigates the effectiveness of video game training, variance manipulation and high variability training in the context of implicit word learning, in which American English speakers without any tone language experience learn four Mandarin Chinese tones by playing a video game. A video game was created in which each of four different animals is associated with a Chinese tone. The task for the participants is to select each animal's favorite food to feed it. At the beginning of the game, each animal is clearly visible. As the game progresses, the images of the animals become more and more vague and eventually visually indistinguishable. However, the four Chinese tones associated with the animals are played all through the game. Thus, the participants need to depend on the auditory information in order to clear the difficult levels. In terms of the training stimuli, the tone tokens were manipulated to have a greater variance on the pitch height dimension, but a smaller variance on the pitch direction dimension, in order to shift the English listeners' perception to pitch direction, a dimension that native Chinese listeners crucially rely on. A variety of pretests and posttests were used to investigate both the English speakers' perception of the tones and their weighting of the acoustic dimensions. These training stimuli were compared to other types of training stimuli used in the literature, such as the high variability natural stimuli and tones embedded in non-minimal pairs. A group of native English speakers was used as the control group without any tone input. A native control group was also included. The video game training for each speaker consisted of four 30-minute sessions on four different days, and 60 participants (including both the non-native control and native control group) participated in the experiments. The crucial findings in the study include (1) all naive listeners in the training condition successfully associated lexical tones with different animals without any explicit feedback after only 2 hours of training; (2) both the resynthesized stimuli with smaller variance on pitch direction and the multi-talker stimuli allowed native English speakers to shift their cue-weighting toward pitch direction and the multi-talker stimuli were more robust in terms of shifting the cue-weighting despite their more heterogeneous distribution in the acoustic space; (3) the multi-talker training allowed for better generalization as the trainees in multi-talker training identified the tones produced by new talkers better than trainees in other conditions; (4) there was a main effect of tone on tone identification and the falling tone was the most challenging one; (5) there is a correlation between cue-weighting and the tone discrimination performance before and after the training; (6) due to individual variability, individuals differed in terms of the amount of tone input they received during the video game training and the number of tone tokens was a significant predictor for the sensitivity to tones calculated as d'. Overall, the study showed an effect of talker variability and variances of multidimensional acoustic space on English speakers' cue-weighting for tone perception and their tone categorization. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study investigates the formative experiences that nurture ecological habits of mind in youth. The study builds on the ecological habits of mind defined by Moroye and Ingman: caring, a sense of interconnectedness, and ecological integrity. A combination of methods was used in this study: in-depth phenomenologically based interviewing, and educational criticism and connoisseurship. Data collection included two interviews each with five teenagers, one interview each with the teens' mothers, photographing of artifacts, and a focus group with six additional teenagers. Observations and interpretations were filtered through ecological and aesthetic lenses. Several key findings emerged. First, it is proposed that three qualities of ecological mindedness be added to those already defined: imagination, active engagement, and self-efficacy. Second, a review of the data revealed that the values of ecologically minded teens include relationship, commitment, and growth. Third, formative influences on the teenagers included experiences in nature (including place, play, and aesthetic experiences), experiences with animals, adult mentorship, community, peer and sibling influence, religion, and story. The aesthetic dimensions of learning (connections, risk-taking, imagination, sensory experiences, perceptivity, and active engagement) were all found to be present in the experiences of the teens; it is proposed that crafting nature-oriented learning experiences with these dimensions in mind helps to nurture ecological mindedness. This study has implications for environmental and ecological education as well as education in general, including implications for teacher education. The values and experiences of the teens help inform the recommendations that educators provide opportunities for natural aesthetic experiences as well as ecological mentoring. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Red snapper, "Lutjanus campechanus," were sampled with hook and line at natural (n = 33) and artificial (n = 27) reef sites in the northern Gulf of Mexico from 2009-2011. Stomachs (n = 708) were extracted and their contents preserved for gut content analysis, and muscle tissue samples (n = 200) were dissected and frozen for stable isotope ratio-mass spectrometry (delta[superscript 13]C, delta[superscript 15]N, and delta[superscript 34]S) analysis. Forty-eight percent of sampled fish had identifiable prey which were grouped into 7 categories: fish, decapods, cephalopods, stomatopods, gastropods, zooplankton, and other invertebrates. A permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) was computed to test the effect of fish size, habitat type, and the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (DHOS) on red snapper diet. Fish size (PERMANOVA, p = 0.021), and the DHOS (PERMANOVA, p = 0.001) were both significant effects in the model, but interactions between habitat type and the DHOS (PERMANOVA, p = 0.049) was also significant. Significant differences in diet among red snapper size categories were due to low trophic position prey items, such as pelagic zooplankton, being more abundant in the diet of larger (>500mm) red snapper, while red snapper in smaller size classes contained greater amounts of higher trophic level prey such decapods and fish. Although no significant difference existed in red snapper diet between habitat types, they consumed slightly higher amounts of decapods at artificial reefs (21.9% of total diet) than natural (14.8%). The significant DHOS effect was driven by an increase in fish and a decrease in zooplankton in red snapper diet following the spill; however, this effect cannot be interpreted independently given the significant interaction between habitat type and the DHOS effect. Zooplankton prey consumption declined and fish consumption increased for red snapper sampled at both artificial and natural reefs after the DHOS, but fish consumption increased to a greater extent at artificial reef sites following the spill. A significant increase in delta[superscript 15]N after the DHOS (ANOVA, p <0.001) also indicates red snapper sampled fed on higher trophic position prey following the spill, and lower delta[superscript 34]S values indicate an increase in benthic versus pelagic prey consumption following the DHOS (ANOVA, p <0.001). The ontogenetic shift in diet observed via gut content analysis was also apparent in the significant effect of fish size on delta[superscript 15]N (ANOVA, p = 0.015). Overall, results clearly indicate the DHOS affected red snapper diet and trophic position, and likely affected the abundance of prey resources as well. Study results also confirm the utility of stable isotope analysis to infer aspects of reef fish trophic ecology. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]