Search

There has been a global rise in migration due to factors including conflict, famine, economic deprivation, health inequalities and more. This has resulted in an increase in the necessity for age assessments to be conducted. This requires methodologies that are both scientifically robust and ethical. Clinical imaging is generally the approach of choice and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is of increasing value as it permits visualisation of osteological maturation which is strongly correlated with chronological age and it meets necessary health and safety requirements. However, limitations exist in the reproducibility and comparison of studies based on MRIs. To identify accurate and appropriate age estimation methodologies this research project aimed to chart maturation of the distal end of the femur using T1 weighted MRIs, relate the changes to chronological age and develop an age estimation method that could be used to predict the age with accuracy and repeatability. A data set of 321 (164 males,157 females) T1 weighted MRIs were collected from a Scottish medical sample aged between 10 and 20 years at the time of image acquisition. An eight-stage classification system was developed and maturational maps of the femoral growth plate were created for each MRI and for each 1-year age cohort. To facilitate comparison of the maturational maps, 8 areas within the created maps were identified and tested to establish whether significant differences existed between them. To relate maturational stage to chronological age, age ranges for each of the 8 stages within the classification system were obtained. Twelve machine learning random forest and random forest with hyperparameter grid regression models (6 for male, 6 for females) for age prediction using 6 different combinations of feature factors were developed. The models were then tested on 40 MRIs as proof of concept. From the results it was observed that the growth plate starts to fuse in the central area and fusion progresses centrifugally. The results showed that when utilising MRIs as the imaging modality the first bone bridges were present in females by 11 years 1 month (133 months) and in males by 12 years 4 months (147 months). The growth plate was mature by 15 years 4 months (184 months) in females, and 16 years 9 months (201 months) in males. Complete fusion of the growth plate at the distal end of the femur can be of assistance in determining the minimum age of 16 years in males, and 14 years in female individuals. It was not possible to assess the minimum age of 18 years in neither sex. A series of stages along with their location within the growth plate that can be useful for age prediction were also identified, specifically for the age thresholds of 12, 14, 16 and 18 years. From the analysis of the age prediction models, the random forest with hyperparameter grid gave the best results. For females the best model results gave a mean absolute error (MAE) of 12.73 months, R2 0.79, while for males a MAE of 9.20 months, R2 0.88. When considering location of the stages within the growth plate when predicting age, the age assessment did not improve, and when using only selected areas of the growth plate the MAE in months increased, suggesting that the whole growth plate should be used when predicting age, instead of selected images or areas. In conclusion, maturation of the distal end of the femur was described for an age cohort of 10-20 years of age, providing final recommendations to assess age from MRIs of the distal end of the femur for relevant age thresholds.

Age estimation is a vital part of the creation of a biological profile for the purposes of identifying unknown individuals. Numerous macroscopic methods of analysing bone have been developed for this purpose. In some cases, however, fragmentation of the bone, poor preservation, and taphonomic damage will not allow for the implementation of these methodologies. For these cases, microscopic analytical methods have become the standard, and in the past several decades methodologies using different parts of the skeleton have been developed, most notably those using the rib for age estimation. These histological age estimation methods rely upon the measurements for cortical area and osteon population density (OPD) for an accurate age estimation. While these population specific methods have proven accurate and useful for the purposes of age estimation, they do not consider the health of the individual whose age they are attempting to estimate. Chronic pathology can change the microstructure of osseous tissue, which in turn could influence the accuracy of histological age estimation methods. The purpose of this study is twofold. First, to examine the microstructure of chronically ill individuals and provide detailed descriptions of microstructural changes for visual identification of pathology. Second, to quantitatively evaluate pathological samples using both standard measurements used in most age estimation calculations, as well as detailed osteon specific histomorphometrics to measure the specific changes to Haversian systems in cases of chronic pathology. By considering both the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of pathological bone in comparison with healthy controls it will be possible to determine what the effects of pathologically affected bone on methods of age estimation could be. Pathological ribs (N=40) were obtained via autopsy from two populations (Albania and Crete), and from a modern skeletal collection (Crete). These were then compared with healthy ribs (N=40) obtained from autopsy (Crete) and from two modern skeletal collections (Crete and Cyprus). The mid-shafts were then prepared using standard protocols for histological methods. First, samples were assessed qualitatively. Samples were visually evaluated for abnormal microstructural features, and these features were then categorised. Samples were then divided and tested, using these pathological feature categories, by disease class and by age group. Second, samples were assessed quantitatively. Thin sections were first measured using the standard histological metrics of cortical area, OPD, number of complete osteons, number of fragmented osteons, and total number of osteons. Thin sections were then evaluated using a sampling method for ten osteon specific metrics (osteon maximum length, osteon minimum length, osteon circumference, osteon total area, osteon area, osteon circularity, canal area, canal maximum diameter, canal minimum diameter, and canal circularity). Assessment for qualitative features was done by identifying abnormal features of the bone microstructure and dividing them into three defined categories. Samples were then sorted into seven different disease classes and healthy controls, and the presence or absence of these pathological features was noted. The samples were then evaluated using a chi squared test. Inter and intra-observer errors were carried out for both quantitative sections using the Technical error of measurement (TEM), rTEM and the coefficient of reliability (R). Statistical analysis was carried out using RStudio. Next comparative statistics, including correlations and regressions, were run between the complete data set, the pathological set, and the healthy set, specifically testing the relationship between actual age and cortical area, and actual age and OPD. This demonstrated that while the complete set did show a significant relationship between age and the two standard variables (R2 0.24 for cortical area and age, R2 0.21 for OPD and age), this relationship was stronger in the healthy data set (R2 0.32 for cortical area and age, R2 0.46 for OPD and age), and much weaker within the pathological data set (R2 0.09 for cortical area and age, R2 0.01 for OPD and age). Next the measurements for osteon specific metrics were evaluated for their relationship to age as a complete data set, then as a set including the metric means of each sample, and finally as forty age matched pairs. This was done using t-tests, correlations, and regression analysis. Correlation analysis for metric means found significant relationships between osteon area, osteon total area, osteon minimum length, osteon perimeter, osteon maximum length, and age in the healthy group. All these variables had p-values of < 0.004. In the pathological group, correlations between the metric variables and age were much weaker, with only three variables, osteon maximum length, osteon area, and osteon minimum length yielding statistically significant relationships, and the p-values for these three relationships were all greater than 0.02, significantly weaker than the healthy group. This research helps define visually identifiable pathological changes to the bone microstructure, and proves that there is a significant difference between the microstructure of pathological and healthy bone. It goes on to show that, while there is a strong relationship between certain microstructural elements and age which would be beneficial for creating population specific age estimation techniques, microstructural elements of pathological samples have much weaker relationships to age, and that their inclusion in data sets used to create population specific formulae would influence the method's accuracy. Further, if a sample is known to be pathological and shows pathological microstructural features, any histological age estimation technique would be less effective, and that if applied. It is recommended that more research is carried out focusing on specific pathologies, and that more population specific studies should be undertaken.

Estimation of age is a crucial step for the identification of unknown individuals. Age is commonly assessed through macroscopic analytical methods based on the gross-examination of age degenerative changes in the skeleton. The choice of the methods relies on the taphonomic condition of the human remains and/or the skeletal element that is available. In cases of very fragmented bones, microscopic techniques remain one of the few approaches to estimate age. Thus, many histological age estimation methods have been developed for different bones and on different samples in the last forty years. Numerous intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence bone remodelling rates and have shown to affect the accuracy of histological aging methods. The present study investigates rib thin-sections from two Mediterranean samples, aiming to explore the applicability and reliability of histological methods in estimating age within these samples. Standard ribs were obtained from males and females (N = 88, Mean age = 60, SD = 17.90) from two samples, Cretans (Greece) and Greek- Cypriots (Republic of Cyprus). The costal elements were processed histologically according to standard protocols and thirteen raw and composite histomorphometric parameters (frequency number of intact and fragmentary osteons, total osteons, osteon population densities - including OPD(I) and OPD(F) - cortical area, total area, endosteal area, relative cortical area, osteon area, osteon perimeter and osteon circularity) were assessed. Intra- and inter-observer errors were examined. Due to the fragmented nature of the costal elements, sampling error was calculated as a means to explore whether the histological variables vary among six different topographical locations along the rib length. A validation study was carried out by applying four existing histological age prediction equations on the entire dataset and on the sub-datasets (sex and samples separately) in order to verify whether population-specific formulae are required for the Mediterranean samples. The relationship between the histological variables and age, as well as sex and samples, was determined through several statistical tests. Lastly, simple and multiple regression analyses were performed testing all possible combinations of variables. The best models ii were finally selected according to prediction power and goodness of fit indicators. The results from intra- and inter-observer errors indicated that most of the histological parameters achieved high levels of repeatability. The preliminary outcome from the sampling error pilot study suggested low variability among the six thin-sections from each rib. According to the validation study, three of the four age prediction equations resulted in high underestimation of age, indicating that population-specific formulae are needed to provide more accurate age estimates. Most of the histological variables showed a statistically significant correlation with age with some differences observed by sex and by sample. Forty-one models were generated concluding that osteon densities along with rib and osteon measurements formulae produced the most accurate results. The best model generated from the entire dataset included OPD and osteon circularity with a standard error of the estimate of 10.45 years. When sex and samples were separated, the best model selected included OPD and osteon perimeter producing a standard error of the estimate of 8 years for Cypriots. This research demonstrates that quantitative bone histology is a feasible method to estimate age on the Mediterranean samples obtaining errors rates that are in accordance with macroscopic ageing techniques. Inter-population variation in remodeling rates is suggested; however, the inclusion of other bones presenting different remodelling dynamics (such as femora) is recommended to further explore this hypothesis. This study contributes to the creation of population-specific standards for Cretans and Cypriots.

The identification of victims involved in mass fatality incidents, as well as the identification of unknown individuals in criminal cases has become an increasingly important issue nowadays. Sex assessment represents a key point in forensic evaluations due to its significance in providing biological identity. Even though the availability of documented skeletal remains to forensic practitioners is a common practice in many countries, in Turkey, contemporary documented skeletal remains are not available for this purpose. For this reason, studies have been focused on living populations. Previous research has shown that modern technologies such as CT scanning present very promising potential in establishing new standards for contemporary populations. Therefore, the main aim of this project was to examine the application of the measurements taken from 3D CT images of the femur in order to assess sex, and to contribute to the establishment of discriminant function equations for the Turkish population for forensic applications. The accuracy and reproducibility of imaging methods in the assessment of the measurements taken from femora are essential when estimating sex. This research also concentrated on determining the accuracy and repeatability of CT measurements, using the femur. Prior to primary data collection, a preliminary study was performed in an effort to test the reliability of the femur measurements. The results of reliability analysis indicated no significant difference between the three observations of each measurement. Thus, the methodology employed in the current study appears reliable and reproducible. In addition, a validation study was conducted to determine the linear measurement accuracy of the 3D volume rendering models derived from a medical CT scanner and the influence of different reconstruction parameters. The differences between measurements obtained from dry bones and their 3D volume rendered models were also evaluated. The results from this study indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between measurements taken from different reconstruction parameters and measurements obtained from CT images and drybones. Using the CT data, volume-rendering function (VR), 3D Curved Multiplanar reconstruction (MPR), and Scout View on OsiriX were employed in order to compare the accuracy and reliability of each rendering method and to determine which technique is optimal for linear measurements. Overall, the measurements taken from the 3D Volume Rendering images had the highest intra-observer reliability when compared to the other two rendering methods. This research study produced data and interpretations that will inform on and improve population specific standards of sex assessment from three-dimensional postcranial osteometric landmarks. Additionally, this research is believed to provide value for a developing discipline of forensic anthropology, and integrate within the existing systems of criminal investigation and disaster victim identification practices in Turkey. A Turkish sample population, consisting of 300 adult hospital patients was examined via the interpretation of CT reconstructed images using the OsiriX software. The 3D reconstructions were then created using the volume-rendering function in OsiriX (v.5.6.). Following the 3D reconstruction, an image of each femur was segmented from the surrounding bones to ensure the correct usage of landmarks as accurately as possible. Thirteen measurements were acquired using a 3D viewer after being located and marked on each CT reconstructed femora. These thirteen anthropometric parameters were measured and analysed by basic descriptive statistics and discriminant analysis methods using the SPSS 21.0 software package. The intra-observer variation was assessed by obtaining the intraclass correlation coefficient in order to evaluate the accuracy of the linear measurements taken. Asymmetry was also tested. The results indicated that an accuracy of 92.3% was acquired from a combination of six of the measurements, and the Femur Vertical Diameter of Neck (FVDN) measurement was found to be the most dimorphic with 88.0% accuracy.

There is a growing recognition that there is a requirement for methods of age estimation of the living to be rigorously tested to ensure that they are accurate, reliable and valid for use in forensic and humanitarian age estimation. The necessity for accurate and reliable methods of age estimation are driven both by humanitarian, political and judicial need. Age estimation methods commonly in use today are based on the application of reference standards, known as atlases, which were developed using data collected from children who participated in longitudinal studies in the early to mid-1900s. The standards were originally developed to provide a baseline to which radiographs could be compared in order to assess the child’s stage of skeletal development in relation to their chronological age, a purpose for which they are still utilised in the medical community. These atlases provide a testable link between skeletal age and chronological age which has been recognised by forensic practitioners who have essentially hijacked this medical capability and applied it to their fields. This has resulted in an increased use of these standards as a method of predicting the chronological age from the skeletal age of a child when the former is unknown. This novel use of the atlases on populations who are distinct, ethnically, temporally and geographically, from those whose data was gathered and was used in the design of the standard leaves the forensic outcomes vulnerable to challenge in court. This study aims to examine the reliability and accuracy of these standards in relation to a modern population, providing a sound statistical base for the use of these standards for forensic purposes. Radiographs were collected from the local hospital from children who had been X-rayed for investigation during attendance at the local A&E department. Four body areas were selected for investigation; the hand-wrist, the elbow, the knee and the foot-ankle and tests were undertaken to assess the radiographs using six commonly uses methods of age estimation. Further images of the wrist and elbow were collected from children in New Delhi, India. These images were subject to age estimation utilising the methods described.

This thesis documents dental maturation in a mid C18, early C19 population where age at death is known (N=63, age range birth and 5.4 years). Emphasis is placed on the mineralization of individual deciduous and certain permanent teeth. In the first part of this thesis, the literature on dental maturation is reviewed with special reference to radiographic studies of populations, methodology and statistical analysis. Quantitative data on developing teeth, population differences and age estimation are also reviewed. In the second part of the thesis the Spitalfields material is described and used to investigate the accuracy of five types of age estimating methods that make use of the developing dentition. It emerges that the atlas method of Schour and Massler (1941) predicted age best. The third part of the thesis documents dental development in the Spitalfields Collection. New data for human deciduous anterior teeth and early stages of permanent anterior teeth are presented. In this study, few permanent anterior tooth crowns were complete before 5 years of age, contrary to published data from radiographic studies. Alveolar eruption of deciduous teeth and measurements of tooth length and weight are presented and discussed in context with published standards. The fourth part of this thesis is a preliminary investigation of cranial and postcranial development in this population. The fifth part is an appendix of data.

Third molars have the most developmental variation of all human dentition, yet Mincer’s method and the computer program UT-Age use third molars to estimate the age of migrants crossing the U.S. border. Most migrants subjected to dental exams are classified as Hispanic. However, the term and reference samples used to estimate age do not account for the possible population variation that the term “Hispanic” can encompass. Additionally, third molar reference samples do not address the possible influence of impaction on third molar development. The objective of this study is to assess the effects of various sources of third molar variation on the application of Mincer’s method and the UT-Age program that are currently employed to assess migrants at the border. To address this objective, this study tests three hypotheses using radiographs from individuals categorized as Hispanic, possibly Hispanic, and Native American: (1) the development of third molars will vary between groups, sexes, and arches, (2) impaction will influence development, and (3) UT-Age will tend to incorrectly predict whether an individual is 18 or older. Radiographs from 1,120 individuals provided by the University of New Mexico Orthodontics Case File System and the Arizona Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner were scored using Mincer’s method. These data were then entered into the UT-Age program to arrive at probabilities of legal age. Using the mean ages for each developmental stage, a suite of statistical analyses was conducted to assess effects of third molar variation. Results show imprecise age association with third molar developmental stages. Significant differences were found in mean ages per developmental stage between the social race groups. Mean ages did not vary between arches, but they did vary between the sexes. Additionally, the mean ages of impacted third molars were found to be older than the mean ages of the non-impacted molars, indicating slowed development of impacted third molars. The UT-Age program was also found to misclassify individuals that had reached 18 years as younger than 18 years. Given these results, Mincer’s method, UT-Age program, and reference samples used are not suitable for living individuals and must be reevaluated.

Research into the utility of digital imagery in conducting remote forensic analyses, or analyses of remains occurring outside of the laboratory, is necessary for the progression of forensic anthropology as new technologies arise. This research assesses the utility of 2D photographs and 3D scans in the assessment of the stage of fusion of the medial clavicular epiphysis. In this study, six participants analyzed 44 physical clavicles, photographs, and 3D scans to determine if stage of fusion can be reliably assessed using digital imagery. The participants either had extensive anthropological experience or no experience, which allows for assessment regarding how experience level can affect the use of digital imagery. The relative reliability of scores produced using photographs and 3D scans is also assessed. This study uses the five-phase method of scoring, as proposed by McKern and Stewart (1957), and also includes an analysis of the way that collapsing this method into the three-phase method of scoring, as proposed by Langley-Shirley and Jantz (2010), affects scoring when using different modalities. Interpretations were made by assessing absolute difference, differences greater than one phase, and weighted kappa analysis. Also, single scorer reliability using all modalities is assessed using intraclass correlation. The results indicate that experienced observers produced the most reliable scores of the medial clavicle. The three-phase method of scoring as proposed by Langley-Shirley and Jantz (2010) was found to be less subjective and more reliable than the five-phase method of scoring. Photographs were found to produce more reliable scores than 3D scans.

Several techniques for estimating adult age-at-death are used in biological and forensic anthropology, including morphological changes of the ribs. However, due to human variation and taphonomic damage, it remains difficult to produce accurate and meaningful age-at-death estimations based on skeletal remains. This research further explores morphological changes to the first rib, which is easily identifiable and relatively robust, including the costal face and tubercle facet identified by Kunos’ (1999) and modified by DiGangi et al. (2009). A total of 400 European American individuals (f=200; m=200) from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, were observed using modified descriptions for Kunos’ (1999) five traits of the costal face and tubercle facet, on an ordinal scale of 1-8. Additionally, bone quality was assessed on an ordinal scale of 1-3 and was incorporated as a variable in order to improve estimations. Exploratory statistical analysis demonstrates that all eleven traits correlate with age at a statistically significant level, with bone quality being the most significant feature for both sexes. Female and male differences were found, and cross-validated ordinal logistic regression equations are presented for each. The resulting AIC table estimates 100% of the male and female sample correctly, though the produced ranges are too large to be forensically relevant. The results of this research underscore the importance of developing age estimation methods on skeletal regions that are under researched and for those that are more resistant to taphonomic damage.

This light and scanning electron microscopic research documents structure and measures change in cementum of several historic African American burial ground samples dating from approximately 1820-1920. The populations these samples represent are from the First African- American Baptist Church in Philadelphia (PA), the Cedar Grove Baptist Church, Texarkana (AR), and Providence Baptist Church, Memphis (TN).This research bears dental histological, forensic and historical significance. Of the dental tissues, cementum structure is the lesser known. Because of continual deposition, annuli have been utilized in age estimation. Cementum annuli is potentially a better age-estimation tissue due to its protected alveolar bone location and that utilization of these incremental lines may be more than any other morphological or histological trait in the human skeleton.There has been only slight research with cementum and even less analyzation using scanning electron microscopy. Here, I obtained high-resolution, three-dimensional topographical images that provide compositional information to the tissue. This analysis provides a metabolic snapshot into the developmental aspect of these individuals.This focus fosters historical interest due to the one-hundred-year chronology, population, and location of discovery. This time span covers a century encompassing the end of slavery (1619-1865), pre-reconstruction (1865-1867), reconstruction (1867-1877), and the era of Jim Crow Law (1877-1950) which barred African Americans from not only participation in White society, but the inability to receive any quality of healthcare. As a mineralized tissue, cementum structure may have secured the impact of the social restrictions.

The spheno-occipital synchondrosis (SOS) is a cartilaginous growth center between the occipital and sphenoid bones. The chronological age of SOS fusion is believed to occur during adolescence, but the physiological changes in facial and mandibular ontogeny that occur during SOS fusion remains unknown. In my studies, I show sexual dimorphism in SOS fusion age with female subjects always ahead of male subjects in each SOS fusion stage. The SOS fusion rate in females is faster than males and the duration of SOS fusion was shorter in females than males. This research demonstrates a significant positive relationship between hand-wrist skeletal maturity and SOS fusion stages in both genders. Moreover, this study has shown that the maximum amount of mandibular growth occurred while the SOS was still fusing; and the minimum amount of mandibular growth occurred when SOS is already fused. As the orthodontic treatment is influenced by the amount of remaining mandibular and facial growth, this data shows that SOS fusion stages could be used as a biological indicator and help in craniofacial skeletal maturity assessment.

Estimating sex and age at death are two crucial processes during the creation of a biological profile for a set of skeletal remains. Whether the remains are archaeological or forensic, estimating the sex and age of the individual is necessary for further analysis and interpretation. Specifically, in a medicolegal context, knowing the biological sex and approximate age of the remains assists law enforcement or government agencies in identifying unknown individuals. Since the inception of the field of forensic anthropology, practitioners have been developing methods to perform the aforementioned tasks. It is crucial that these methods be consistent, repeatedly tested, validated, and improved for multiple reasons. Firstly, to conform to Daubert (1993) standards, and additionally, to make sure that they are accurate and applicable to modern forensic cases. The present study was performed to validate the efficacy of the method for estimating sex from the os pubis originally proposed in Klales et al. (2012), as well as the efficacy of the “transition analysis” method for estimating age, originally outlined in Boldsen et al. (2002). Considering the recent popularity of using these methods to create a biological profile for forensic cases, it is necessary to develop error rates on a large, modern, American autopsy sample. These two methods are not only being readily utilized, but are additionally being taught to students in training. The utilization of these models involves a “logistic regression model” created by Klales et. al (2012) to process ordinal scores, and the Bayesian statistics software program “ADBOU” that was created for processing data collected using the method in Boldsen et. al (2002). These statistical systems which produced age estimates are relatively young compared to methods developed for the same purpose. The new generation of forensic anthropologists is fully responsible for objectively critiquing and validating these methods that are being disseminated by their professors and senior practitioners. The goal of the present study is to do just that. A skeletal reference sample of 630 pubic bones, all removed from modern autopsy cases and housed at the Maricopa County Forensic Science Center in Phoenix, Arizona, was utilized for data collection in the present study. Each pubic bone was assessed and scored according to the exact instructions outlined in the materials for each method, which was the Klales et al. (2012) paper for sex estimation, and the UTK Data Collection Procedures for Forensic Skeletal Material 2.0 for age estimation (Langley et al. 2016). Additionally, the observers recorded their “gestalt” estimates for sex using the Phenice (1969) system, as well as Brooks and Suchey (1990) and Hartnett (2010a) phases for each pubis. Demographic information labels were hidden, and the collection demographic information was not viewed until the completion of data collection. The null hypothesis in the present study is that both methods (the Klales et al. method (2012) and “transition analysis” method (Boldsen et al. 2002) will perform as well as they did in the original studies. The alternate hypothesis is that they do not result in the same accuracy rates reported in the original studies. Statistical analysis of the data indicates that there is sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis as it applies to the Klales et al. (2012) method. The classification accuracies achieved applying the logistic regression equation to the sample of pubic bones was found to be significantly lower than reported in the original study (86.2%), averaging around 70% between observers. The level of both intraobserver and interobserver agreement was only moderate for this method. It was also found that asymmetry occurred in some individuals, producing differing estimates of sex when the left and right pubes were scored separately. When utilizing the Boldsen et al. (2012) method and the ADBOU software package on only pubic symphyseal components to estimate age, the method was found to perform reasonably well. The majority (about 82%) of individuals had actual ages at death that fell within the predicted range produced by the statistical analysis. The majority of the symphyseal component scores showed moderate to good levels of interobserver agreement, and the estimated maximum likelihood (point estimate) of age at death predicted by the software package correlated moderately well with the actual age of death of the individual. These methods did not perform as well as reported in the original studies, and they should be further validated and recalibrated to improve their accuracy and reliability.

Age estimation is a critical component of the biological profile in forensic and bioarchaeological contexts. The majority of age estimation methods are most accurate for individuals of younger age cohorts, typically those under 40 years of age. Skeletal degeneration can vary greatly between individuals, making age estimation less accurate for adult individuals. While there are some methods that attempt to age older individuals accurately and precisely, more research must be conducted to expand the range of methods available. Falys and Prangle (2014) developed a method for estimating age in individuals over the age of 40 using three degenerative characteristics of the sternal end of the clavicle: (1) surface topography, (2) porosity, and (3) osteophyte formation. In order to test their method, a sample of 1,510 individuals of known sex and age, ranging from 20 to 101 years of age (males: n = 1112, mean = 50.57, SD = 18.015; females: n = 398, mean = 53.065, SD = 20.358), were drawn from the McCormick Collection and the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection at the University of Tennessee. Due to the paucity of remains of other ancestries, only individuals of reported White ancestry were used in this study. The two estimation methods proposed in Falys and Prangle (2014), regression equation and composite score, were tested to see how well they perform when applied to a different sample population than the populations used to develop the method. When applied to the collected data, the regression equation produced age estimations that fell within the 95% confidence interval in 47.6% of the male sample and 57.4% of the female sample. Composite scores were calculated and compared to the corresponding age ranges provided in Falys and Prangle (2014). The composite scores of the male sample estimated the age of an individual more accurately than the composite scores of the female sample (male = 65.9%; female = 58.8%). The lowest estimation accuracy for both males and females was between 70-79 years of age (male = 46.0%; female = 51.4%). From 80-89 years of age, the accuracy increased for males (76.4%) and females (69.4%). The sample also included individuals under the age of 40 in order to test whether the inclusion of clavicles with recent epiphyseal union would affect the applicability of the Falys and Prangle (2014) method. Multiple regression equations were generated: (1) individuals over 20 years of age, (2) individuals over 30 years of age, and (3) individuals over 40 years of age. The results from the multiple regression analyses show comparable Pearson’s coefficients for the above mentioned equations (r = 0.690, r = 0.632, and r = 0.611, respectively). Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients indicated a correlation significant at the 0.01 level for all three components individually, as well as the composite score. Of the three components, surface topography was most strongly correlated with age for both males (r = 0.643) and females (r = 0.590). Unlike the findings of Falys and Prangle (2014), porosity was found to be the least correlated with age for both males (r = 0.474) and females (r = 0.514). In addition, when broken down into ten year intervals (40-49, 50-59, etc.), the correlation coefficients increase with advancing age. This suggests that the method becomes more accurate as the age of an individual increases. The inter-observer and intra-observer agreement tests produced very low agreement values. The low observer agreement indicates that the current scoring method is not a reliable, repeatable technique. However, when examined further, the observed trait values that differed between the tests primarily differed by one score. These results suggest that condensing the scores in order to account for more variation would likely increase the observer agreement. However, condensing the scores would result in larger age intervals, which nullifies the purpose of this method. The findings in the present study indicate that the sternal end of the clavicle has potential for use in age estimation in older individuals. Although the present study produced lower correlation coefficients than proposed by the original study in 2014, the correlations and age-at-transition test results suggest that the sternal end of the clavicle deteriorates in a predictable manner that, with more observation and understanding, could be used to accurately age older individuals more precisely than the large age intervals currently in use. Despite the correlations between the degeneration of the sternal end of the clavicle and the age-at-death, the error rates suggest it is not a reliable alternative to the current methods used.