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This paper is a review of literature regarding internalization of Western culture's thin-ideal. The media's portrayal of a thin-ideal associates success and beauty with being thin. Research has shown that exposure to the culture's thin-ideal does not necessarily lead to eating pathology, but those who internalize the standard are more likely to experience body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms. Several researchers have adopted the sociocultural theory and others maintain that individuals are incorporating the thin-ideal into their sense of self and beliefs. Internalization is correlated with various co-factors, such as depression, personality, self-esteem, and relationships. Treatments for internalization if the thin-ideal have been somewhat successful. (Contains 57 references.) (Author)

This practicum was designed to focus on: (1) the improvement of the confidence of pre-adolescent girls; (2) the establishment of a positive body image; and (3) the strengthening of assertiveness skills. The writer worked in a group of 20 girls over a period of 8 months using exercises designed to facilitate their growth. A curriculum was developed which uses hands-on exercises to: (1) explore the impact of the media upon concepts of female beauty and strength; (2) examine stereotypes found in their literature and history textbooks; (3) expand their awareness of sexism in daily life; (4) develop assertive skills to combat harassment; and (5) identify strong and famous women in history. Analysis of the data revealed the format of this group effective in increasing the girls self-confidence and sense of positive body-image, but the results were inconclusive for the strengthening of assertiveness skills. Five tables show the results of questionnaires completed by the girls and their mothers. (Author/SR)

This practicum designed and implemented a body image improvement program for seven severely emotionally disturbed latency-aged girls. Students participated once per week for 12 weeks in individual art therapy and in group sessions. The practicum incorporated therapeutic art activities with verbal interactions and utilized human growth films, cooperative learning techniques, and child care personnel from outside agencies. Major issues addressed included cooperation and sharing, health, nutrition and hygiene, puberty and the onset of menstruation, increased body awareness and acceptance, and the acquisition of a more accurate perception of physical self. The individual art therapy sessions allowed for the reinforcement of new concepts and ideas and discussion of questions, concerns, disclosures, and revelations as they arose. Results suggested that participants developed a greater awareness of the physical and emotional changes associated with puberty, an understanding of proper nutrition for young girls, and an improved perception of the physical self. Appendices contain a body image observation checklist and a sample permission letter to parents. (36 references) (Author/JDD)

Paper 1: Study one investigates the relationship between the ages of children and young people in years 5-9 and their levels of body esteem, perceived pressure from family, friends and the media, internalisation of societal standards of attractiveness and social comparison.169 participants aged 9-14 years completed four questionnaires: the Body Esteem Scale for Children, the Perceived Sociocultural Pressure Scale, the general internalisation subscale of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 and the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale. Results indicated that relationships existed between the age of participants and their scores on these questionnaires, but only for girls. For girls, a significant negative correlation was found between age in months and scores on the Body Esteem Scale for Children, and a significant positive correlation was found between age in months and scores on the Perceived Sociocultural Pressure Scale, the general internalisation subscale of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 and the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale. No relationship between age in months and scores on the questionnaires were found for boys. Boys also had significantly higher body esteem than girls and there were significant correlations between scores on the Perceived Sociocultural Pressure Scale, the general internalisation subscale of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3, the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale and the Body Esteem Scale for Children. Results are discussed with reference to the gender differences, as well as the role of pressure, internalisation and social comparison in the development of body esteem in children and young people. Paper 2: Study two has a positive psychology focus and is a qualitative study of children and young people with positive body esteem. 10 participants from the initial sample of 169 participants from study one with the highest levels of body esteem were selected for interview. The aim of the research was to discover what children with positive body esteem say about their own appearance, exercise, the influence of family, friends and school, and also about appearance ideals. Thematic analysis revealed that children and young people with positive body esteem have a sense of global satisfaction with their appearance but did not place great importance on appearance. Appearance was rarely discussed with significant others in their lives, although many participants described receiving compliments about their appearance. Where negative comments had been received, these were dismissed as jokes or not important. When asked about appearance ideals, the children and young people in the current study discussed controllable aspects of appearance such as clothes and hairstyles; however, they often rejected appearance ideals and instead defined beauty more widely. Finally, exercise and sport were an important part of these children and young people’s lives, with a number of participants competing at a high level. Findings are discussed with particular reference to previous work with Swedish adolescents by Frisén and Holmqvist (2010) and Holmqvist and Frisén (2012).

Body image disturbance has permeated Western society and is experienced by women and men of all ages and life stages (Grogan, 2016). Further, body dissatisfaction is associated with behavioural, psychological, physical, and interpersonal consequences (Cash, 2012; Grogan, 2016; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Accordingly, body image literature has expanded exponentially over the past 30 years. However, prominent gaps remain within the literature, three of which are considered in this thesis. These are: the trajectory, prevalence and cohort effects of body image disturbance across the adult lifespan for women and men, body dissatisfaction in midlife women, and the role body image disturbance plays in romantic relationships. The first of the three empirical papers examined patterns of developmental change and cohort effects in body image across the male and female adult lifespan. Body satisfaction was assessed in longitudinal data spanning six years, from 2010 to 2015. Cohort sequential latent growth curve modelling was utilized to assess patterns of mean-level change due to both aging and cohort effects in 15264 participants (62.9% women) aged between 19 – 74 years (M= 46.55, SD= 14.24). Results demonstrated a slight increase in body satisfaction across the lifespan for both men and women. Examination of cohort effects revealed that for women aged 54 years and below, all but two cohorts (24 – 29 & 34 – 39 years) displayed an upward trajectory in their body satisfaction over the 5-year period of assessment. No consistent cohort effects were evident for men. Finally, men consistently displayed higher levels of body satisfaction compared to women across the lifespan. This study provided insights into the trajectory of body image across the lifespan for men and women. The findings also suggest that body image may be improving for women in recent years. The second of the three empirical papers investigated the applicability of the Tripartite Influence Model (TIM) to midlife women. Female participants (N=206) aged 40-55 years (M = 46.75, SD = 4.54) completed measures related to sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalisation, appearance comparison, body dissatisfaction, bulimic symptoms, restrained eating, and psychological distress. Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the model. As predicted, greater peer and media pressure were associated with greater appearance comparison which in turn was associated with greater body dissatisfaction. Also as predicted, greater body dissatisfaction was associated with greater restrained eating and bulimic symptoms, which in turn were associated with greater psychological distress. Contrary to predictions, none of the sociocultural influences were associated with thin-ideal internalization, and family pressure was not associated with appearance comparison. Furthermore, appearance comparison was not associated with body dissatisfaction. A number of unpredicted associations also emerged. Family and media pressure were directly associated with body dissatisfaction, and peer pressure was directly associated with psychological distress. Furthermore, unpredicted direct associations were also found between thin-ideal internalisation and disordered eating, and between appearance comparison and both bulimic symptoms and psychological distress. Overall, the findings provided partial support for applicability of the TIM for midlife women. The third of the three empirical papers sought to advance understanding of the associations between body image and relationship outcomes within heterosexual romantic relationships. In two studies (Study 1: N = 197 couples, Mage = 22.99; Study 2: N = 97 couples, Mage = 25.36), both members of dating and/or married couples reported on their body image, perceptions of partner’s attraction to the self, own attraction toward the partner, and relationship satisfaction. Study 2 also incorporated measures of participants’ body mass index (BMI) and sexual satisfaction. Across both studies, women who had poorer body image perceived their partner to be less attracted to them (irrespective of their partners’ actual attraction to them or how attracted they were to their partner), which in turn was associated with lower relationship and sexual satisfaction. For men, attraction to their partner was consistently associated with their own relationship satisfaction. Results demonstrated that projection biases are a possible mechanism through which body image is associated with romantic relationship outcomes. In sum, the results of this compendium of research speak to important aspects within the body image literature. Namely, results suggest that body dissatisfaction appears to improve across the female and male lifespan, and appears to be improving in younger cohorts. Further, we find that the Tripartite Influence Model (Thompson et al., 1999) is partially applicable to midlife female populations. Finally, the last two studies suggest that projection biases are a potential mechanism through which body image may impede upon romantic relationship outcomes.

Over the past 100 years, assessment tools have been developed that allow us to explore mental and behavioral processes that could not be measured before. However, conventional statistical models used for psychological data are lacking in thoroughness and predictability. This provides a perfect opportunity to use machine learning to study the data in a novel way. In this paper, we present examples of using machine learning techniques with data in three areas: eating disorders, body satisfaction, and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). We explore clustering algorithms as well as virtual reality (VR). Our first study employs the k-means clustering algorithm to explore eating disorder behaviors. Our results show that the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) and Clinical Impairment Assessment (CIA) are good predictors of eating disorder behavior. Our second study uses a hierarchical clustering algorithm to find patterns in the dataset that were previously not considered. We found four clusters that may highlight the unique differences between participants who had positive body image versus participants who had negative body image. The final chapter presents a case study with a specific VR tool, Bob’s Fish Shop, and users with ASD and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). We hypothesize that, through the repetition and analysis of these virtual interactions, users can improve social and conversational understanding. Through the implementation of various machine learning algorithms and programs, we can study the human experience in a way that has never been done. We can account for neurodiverse populations and assist them in ways that are not only helpful but also educational.

Obesity as a social and health problem is well recognized in the public's consciousness, and as a result, numerous food-related policies and programs have been conceived to encourage healthful dietary changes in individuals. In response to the high caloric content of fast food, menu labeling laws, which strive to reduce consumers' consumption of unhealthful foods, have become a popular approach to address obesity. These laws and other policies aimed at changing individual's consumption practices exist within a context where many factors may shape food choices. By considering the literature on food choice, which has remained largely independent of public health research on obesity and food policy, questions are raised about the extent to which individuals can and will prioritize their health when making food choice decisions. This qualitative interview study examined the food choices of 20 working class African American women - those considered among the highest at risk for obesity - to consider to what extent food-related policies may be effective in changing their consumption practices. The following compendium presents three papers resulting from analyses of in-depth interviews with women. The first paper, "Conflicting discourses in qualitative research: The search for divergent data within cases," is a methodological piece that considers the important role of examining conflicting discourses within women's narratives to uncover more meaningful and holistic accounts of respondent's lives. The second paper, "A transdisciplinary perspective of food choice for working class African American women," presents a transdisciplinary model of food choice that shaped the study design and helped to reveal the multi-dimensional nature of food choice for women. Finally, the third paper, "Embodying both stigma and satisfaction: Messages for obesity prevention targeting young African American women," introduces an important emergent theme about body image that was uncovered with this project. Each of these three papers is unified not only by the simple fact that they resulted from the same research project but also by demonstrating the meaning and importance of contradictions - or inherent thematic conflicts - that are revealed through qualitative data analyses.

Research on body image among adolescent girls has seen a substantial increase during the past two decades due to its direct connection to physical and mental health problems. Unfortunately, the majority of these studies have been pathology-focused with extensive research examining negative conceptualizations of body image. Moreover, there is a dearth of research examining how adolescents from diverse cultural backgrounds experience body image. This paper addresses these gaps in the literature by first identifying distinct profiles of both positive and negative body image experiences among Latina adolescents. The emergent body image profiles were then linked to various psychosocial outcomes, including disordered eating, social engagement, and self-esteem. LCA results showed preference for a two-class model that included a Positive Attitude and Hoping to Change class and a Negative Attitude and Hoping to Change class. The Negative Attitude and Hoping to Change class demonstrated generally poorer outcomes, as they reported greater levels of disordered eating and lower functioning with regard to self-esteem and social engagement.

This paper is an examination of colonialism, its effects on cultural identity, and its impact on the lives of women in South Africa, both black and white. The theoretical work relates to both personal issues of displacement and alienation, caused by the politics of Apartheid. The work addresses the personal, political, and social issues of cultural identity and sexuality based on the author’s own memories and experiences of the relationships between black and white women. The work attempts to deal with the issues of race, gender and class, and by using female imagery to explore issues that have enabled the exploitation and control of the sexuality as well as the economic production, of South African women. In this context the paper situates the practical work which refers to the visual impact of racist ideologies that have used the female body as a site of colonialism and subjugation, to show the effects of colonialism on the identities of African women.

While public health literature indicates sexual minority women (SMW) are at risk for obesity, psychological literature suggests SMW possess the health advantage of positive body image. In this dissertation, I bring these two lines of research together to create a more complete picture of SMW’s health. First, I conducted a purposeful literature review to identify influential papers in the health sciences that focus on SMW, body size, and health status. Articles in the final analytic sample contained key gaps in the operationalization of body size and its relationship to health. The majority demonstrated a bias towards understanding body size as a marker of disease, ignoring scholarship questioning the link between body size and health. Body image was missing from half the articles, suggesting a privileging of medical metrics like BMI over SMW’s beliefs about the status of their bodies. Then, using quantitative survey data from the Michigan Smoking and Sexuality Survey (M-SASS), a cross-sectional study of SMW between the ages of 18 and 24, I conducted two sets of analyses. (1) I evaluated whether aspects of SMW’s identities where they departed from heteronormative social roles (i.e., non-traditional gender roles, sexual identity, connection to LGBTQ community) were associated with dimensions of body esteem (i.e., body weight, body attribution, and body shame). The results indicated that connection to the LGBTQ community increased positive feelings about body weight and reduced feelings of body shame. These relationships were amplified among masculine-identified SMW. (2) I assessed whether positive body image can be understood as a psychological asset available to SMW facing size discrimination. I tested three theoretically informed resilience models of body size, size discrimination, body image, and mental health (i.e., depressive symptoms, self-esteem) and found that SMW who experienced more size discrimination reported more depressive symptoms. Conversely, positive body image was associated with fewer depressive symptoms and more self-esteem. By examining body size and body image in relationship to each other and to mental health, this dissertation underscores that viewing the health of SMW solely through the lens of obesity is limiting and that SMW may have access to unique processes of resilience.

This paper analyzes the secrets revealed by Korean high school girls. Despite their struggles being known to the Korean public-at-large, the majority of these secrets express the students dismay at not meeting the high standards expected of teenage girls in successfully preparing for the future. In this case study, the public airing of the otherwise silenced acknowledgement of the authors' perceived deficiencies and failures illuminates processes of biopower (the subject-based regulation and disciplining of bodies) embedded within the Korean nation-state building project. I explore how the Neo-Confucian principles of reverence, obedience, and self-cultivation work together with the neoliberal, post-industrial consumerist nation-state in rendering adolescent girls 'docile and useful' (Foucault 1990[1976]). I aim to explicate the regulatory mechanisms and disciplinary pressures experienced daily by Korean teenage girls and argue that adolescent subjects in particular embody both the underpinnings and cost of the nation-state building project.'

Background: Inadequate physical activity behavior persists among African American women despite the widely documented benefits of physical activity. Literature notes a positive correlation between self-efficacy for exercise and physical activity behavior. In addition to socioeconomic factors, culturally influenced factors mediate self-efficacy for task such as physical activity. Past studies indicate differing perceptions related to religiosity and body image among African American populations. Additionally, reports indicate Southern and Midwestern states have the highest prevalence of obesity. These states are located in a geographical area known as the Bible belt. Moreover, 73.5% of the African American population in the U. S. resides in Bible belt states. Obesity is more prevalent among African American women when compared to other populations. The purposes of this study were to examine the relationships among self-efficacy for exercise, religiosity, body image perception, body mass index, socioeconomic factors (i.e., level of education, monthly income, church attendance, residency [i.e., rural or urban], age, parental responsibility [i.e., caring for children under age 16], number of children, occupation and marital status), and physical activity behavior, to examine differences in the level of the aforementioned variables among that attend church frequently to those that attend church infrequently, and lastly to explicate the predictors of self-efficacy for exercise and physical activity behavior among this sample of African American women. Methods: This cross-sectional, descriptive, comparative study was used to explore physical activity behavior among African American women. Participants were recruited from a large African Methodist Episcopal church and through word of mouth by women that had completed the study in a Southern city. Participants’ self-efficacy for exercise, religiosity, body image perceptions, socioeconomic factors and physical activity behavior were assessed with the following paper and pencil self-report instruments respectively: Physical Exercise Self-efficacy Scale, A Standardized Demographic Data Collection Form, God Locus of Health Control, Appearance Schema Inventory – Revised, and the Stanford Brief Activity Survey. Height and weight information was used to calculate body mass index for each participant. Participants were categorized into groups based on church attendance and physical activity behavior. Participants reported the number of Sunday’s they attended church per month on the demographic data collection form and were categorized into the following groups: frequent church attendance (at least 3 times out of the month) and infrequent church attendance (less than 3 times out of the month). The Stanford Brief Activity Survey was used to categorize participants into the following groups inactive (scores ranged from 1-2) and active (scores ranged from 3-5). Descriptive statistics were used to summarize sample characteristics, bivariate correlation analysis was used to examine variable relationships, independent sample t-test and chi-square test were used to examine group differences, and multiple regression analysis was used to determine the predictors of self-efficacy for exercise and physical activity behavior in this sample of African American women. Results: The final sample included 100 African American women. The mean monthly income was $2,242. On average participants attended church frequently, had completed high school or attended college, were not married, and had children. Most of the sample was obese (67%), employed (75%), resided within the city limits (74%), and had at least one child under the age of 16 (56%). Additionally, 61 participants (61%) reported having occupations that required activity that approximated light intensity physical activity. Many significant relationships were noted among the study variables. Significant relationships were noted between self-efficacy for exercise and physical activity behavior, parental responsibility, body mass index and church attendance. Physical activity behavior was significantly associated with education and type of occupation. Religiosity was significantly associated with education. Body mass index was associated with body image perception and education. Groups reported similar levels of religiosity and self-efficacy for exercise. However, women that attended church frequently tended to be younger than those who attended infrequently. Women residing in rural areas reported slightly higher scores on the GLHC indicating extrinsic religiosity. Self-efficacy for exercise predicted physical activity behavior in this sample of African American women. Additionally, the presence of minor children, marital status, and body mass index predicted self-efficacy for exercise. Conclusion: The findings of this study illuminated significant positive associations between self-efficacy for exercise and physical activity behavior in African American women. Based on the findings of this study, future interventions designed to over come modifiable perceived barriers to physical activity such as having minor children could enhance self-efficacy for exercise and physical activity behavior among African American women. Moreover, further exploration of the influence that being married or partner has on self-efficacy for exercise would be helpful in understanding physical activity behavior among women among this group. Information related to the predictors of self-efficacy for exercise and physical activity behavior will assist researchers plan more tailored culturally relevant health promotion interventions for this population.

This study sought to determine whether or not the antecedents to fashion opinion leadership differ from those for fashion opinion seeking with regard to body image, self-esteem, and consumer need for uniqueness. The following research questions were examined:1. Do fashion opinion leaders have higher self-esteem than fashion opinion seekers?2. Do fashion opinion leaders have more positive body images than fashion opinion seekers?3. Are fashion opinion leaders more confident than fashion opinion seekers?4. Do fashion opinion leaders engage in more appearance management behaviors than fashion opinion seekers?Furthermore, it was hypothesized that fashion opinion leaders would have a higher need for uniqueness than fashion opinion seekers.Research has examined relationships between self-identification as a fashion opinion leader or fashion opinion seeker and various factors. Body image and self-esteem are two constructs that have not yet been considered. It is possible that fashion opinion leaders will have negative body images since they may be more likely to compare themselves to media images (Muzinicha, Pecotich, & Putrevu, 2003; O’Cass, 2004). Self-esteem may also be an antecedent to fashion opinion leadership or seeking (Cash et al., 2003). Dress may improve one’s feelings about oneself in those with low self-esteem, while for those with high self-esteem, clothing might be used as a visual demonstration of a positive self-concept (Creekmore, 1974; Joung & Miller, 2006).Consumer need for uniqueness has been used in previous studies to examine its effect on fashion opinion leadership and seeking. Based on their strong need for differentiation from others, research has shown that opinion leaders score higher than opinion seekers on measures of general need for uniqueness (Snyder & Fromkin, 1980; Workman & Kidd, 2000; Goldsmith & Clark, 2008).The study utilized female students majoring in Textiles & Clothing at a large, Midwestern university. The study predominantly used quantitative measures, with the exception of several open-ended questions. Each student completed an online or paper version of the survey containing standardized instruments to measure opinion leadership, body image, self-esteem, and need for uniqueness. In addition, subjects answered several open-ended questions about their level of confidence and appearance involvement and choose from a selection of photographs the outfits that most closely depict their own style. The investigators analyzed the data using descriptive statistics. Chi-square statistics were also used in the analysis since the data contains categorical responses between two (or more) independent groups (i.e., positive vs. negative body image, high vs. low self-esteem, etc.). Responses to the open-ended questions were analyzed and placed into thematic categories. Analysis showed high reliability for each scale. In addition, the chi-square analysis showed a significant relationship (p=.003) with a small effect size between fashion opinion leadership/fashion opinion seeking and consumer need for uniqueness. However, the relationships between fashion opinion leadership/fashion opinion seeking and self-esteem and fashion opinion leadership/fashion opinion seeking and body image were insignificant with small effect sizes.