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This study compared the factors of library anxiety in 23 upper level history and 24 physical education majors. The Library Anxiety Scale (LAS) was administered. This scale measures the five factors of library anxiety: barriers with staff, affective barriers, comfort with the library, knowledge of the library, and mechanical barriers. A t-test was run to measure the difference in the level of anxiety experienced by both groups. The t-statistic was 2.554, which is a statistically significant difference. A series of algorithms was performed for each factor for both groups allowing a study of the individual factor responses. Implications are discussed, and suggestions for future research are made. Appendixes contain 30 charts and graphs, the LAS, a table of factor values by factor, and letters used in the study. (Contains 39 references.) (Author/SLD)

The impact of using integrated metacognitive instruction on high school students' achievement, self-efficacy, and test anxiety was studied. Forty students in 2 advanced geography classes in a large suburban high school participated. The level of metacognitive strategies students used at the beginning of the semester was assessed and compared to that of the end of the semester, and these levels were compared to those of a control group. The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) was used to measure metacognitive strategy use, self-efficacy for learning, and test anxiety. It was hypothesized that the treatment group would have higher scores on an achievement test, that they would report higher self-efficacy scores, and that they would also report lower test anxiety scores. Treatment effects were in the direction that was hypothesized, but there were no significant differences between the two groups, a result that may be attributed to the small sample size. Significant interactions were found between gender and achievement, metacognitive self-regulation, and test anxiety. Males had higher achievement scores, and females reported higher levels of metacognitive strategy use and higher levels of test anxiety. Attachments include lesson plans, the MSLQ, and forms used to conduct the study. (SLD)

The purpose of this study is to examine the number of history books published in England during the 16th century, and attempts to estimate who were the publishers, authors and printers, and intended and actual readers. The main data source for this study was the electronic version of the "English Short Title Catalogue," provided by the Research Libraries Group. All books dealing with history in that period were extracted, and a search was conducted separately on each year. A review of the entire collection of "history books" using content analysis lead to an estimation of what should be considered "chronicles." The study concludes that during the 16th century there was a slow and persistent growth of history literature. Historical events, not the success or downfall of the publishing industry, affected the history publications. "Chronicle" is defined as follows: "a continual practical narration of compiled miscellaneous random and unconnected facts from the most available number of sources in a chronological order in an attempt to picture martial, ecclesiastical, governing and private affairs in an uncritical manner." Appendices include tables and charts for the research and five English history books (and copies of their title pages) of the 16th century located in the Kent State Library. (Contains 34 references.) (AEF)

This paper explores the thesis that a discrepancy exists in the treatment of physical disease over mental illness when care is provided by Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs). Inconsistencies exist in the form of narrowed and abbreviated treatment models coupled with outmoded views towards mental illness. Strategies currently used by HMOs to limit the treatment and care of mental illnesses such as substance abuse can also be used to restrict access to marriage and family therapy. HMOs also do not take into account individual differences, and have a complete disregard for environmental, demographic, and multicultural factors. After chronicling the history of HMOs in the United States, the paper explores the effects of HMO decisions on consumers. It reports the results of the questionnaire distributed to consumers, providers, and executives to determine if the consumer is being denied qualitative mental health care. It concludes with an exploration of more humanistic and acceptable alternatives to mental health care. With this paper the author hopes to: (1) educate newly licensed mental health practitioners to issues regarding HMOs in order that they can protect their interests while maintaining integrity in their treatment of mental health patients, and (2) promote awareness of any ethical concerns that might result as HMOs dictate treatment for mentally ill patients. (Contain 47 references and three appendixes.) (Author/JDM)

A description and evaluation of the archival materials of the Pontifical College Josephinum (Columbus, Ohio) is presented, with a focus on the founder of the Josephinum, Monsignor Joseph Jessing, and his place within the archives. The paper is intended to provide the administration of the Josephinum with recommendations and to stimulate further research of the archival principles being used within seminaries as a means of preserving the history of some of the oldest institutions of higher education in the United States. The historical information used was gleaned from actual records, documents, photographs, correspondence, artifacts, and literature, all from within the archives. The researcher made numerous visits to the archives and interviewed several persons; following each visit, field notes were transcribed. A brief history and overview of the archives is provided. The archives are described and evaluated in terms of physical locations, organization of records, preservation issues, and security issues. Items associated with Monsignor Jessing are then described. Two appendices contain photographs of the archives and of various archival items, and field notes. (Contains 42 references.) (Author/DLS)

This paper reports on a study conducted to collect the data pertaining to corporate libraries in the United States in order to provide a statistical profile of these special libraries. A review of the literature was performed. The researcher used the online "1996 Directory of Special Libraries and Information Centers," which lists 21,380 special libraries. Of these, 1,417 company libraries were analyzed to provide statistics for a comparison of founding date; gender of library supervisor; periodical subscriptions; computer automation; online network participation; and distribution of libraries by state. When possible this information was compared to available historical data. It was found that over 50% of the libraries were established after World War II. Since that time, collection size has evolved. Although monographs and company generated reports remain important, periodical subscriptions have risen slightly since the 1960s. At this time, computer automation and online databases are available at less than half of the libraries analyzed. Over seventy percent of library supervisors are female. Data are presented in 10 tables. Two appendices contain coding for profiles of corporate libraries; and five tables compiled by Anthony Kruzas. (Author/DLS)

Historically, bibliographical classification and indexing systems have concentrated on textually-based materials. More recently, archives and libraries have realized a pressing need to provide access to visual documents. An institution like the Ohio Historical Society must consider many different tools of access to achieve this goal. The growth of the Internet makes it an attractive conduit for providing access via an electronic index of bibliographical surrogates of the collection. The heart of the index is the bibliographical record. If the search terms selected by the researcher do not match the terms selected by the indexer, the index is a failure. This study addresses methods of anticipating the language and needs of an index's future users by charting and analyzing past information requests. It also examines the different sources available for generating the controlled vocabulary and bibliographic record format for image collections. Finally, it describes the creation and testing of an electronic index by four Ohio Historical Society staff researchers. Findings include: the majority of reference requests are very specific; the subject headings of the "Library of Congress Thesaurus for Graphic Materials" are the most appropriate for this collection; and the best model for the bibliographic record is the Library of Congress record. Several modifications of these records proved appropriate in the areas of field names and the level of specificity of subject headings. Appendices include reference and information-only requests from July 1995-May 1997, sample records, and a bibliography of Civil War Ohio reference books. (Contains 28 references.) (Author/SWC)

This program was developed and implemented to correct noncompliance with Florida Education Legislation 233.061, to increase knowledge of basic facts surrounding the Holocaust and to increase positive tolerance attitudes of diversity. The objectives for the program were to increase the instruction of the Holocaust by 75%; increase the student's knowledge of the Holocaust by 30%; and increase positive tolerance attitudes of diversity by 10%. The target group of teachers were required to instruct the Holocaust using an author designed curriculum. All the program objectives were met with the target groups improving dramatically teacher and student knowledge of the Holocaust. Appendixes include a parent letter, grade level curriculum, suggested projects, and grade-level teacher resource packets. (Contains 20 references.) (Author)

The wars of the twentieth century have clarified American librarians' evolving attitudes toward censorship, while at the same time providing impetus for changes in those attitudes. This study uses content analysis to examine librarians' attitudes toward censorship during three periods: the First World War, the Second World War, and the Vietnam War. Articles from "Library Journal,""American Libraries," and "Wilson Library Bulletin" were coded for: references to war, social issues, and intellectual freedom concepts; the writer's attitude toward censorship; approved and disapproved motives for censorship; and language used to refer to targeted items. Two major trends were identified through this analysis: a steady though non-uniform shift from a pro- to an anti-censorship position, and a shift of focus within the censorship debate from political-military censorship to moral-social censorship. Possible causes for these shifts include changing concepts of the library's mission--from moral guide and teacher to guardian of the public's right to know; the evolution of the library profession; the differences among the three wars themselves; radical changes in the country's social atmosphere; and the tendency within any forum to focus debate on topics in the mid-range of opinion, between unanimity and taboo. A coding sheet and supplementary tables are appended. (Contains 27 references.) (Author/SWC)

This paper provides a detailed account of the inception and growth both of the Shaker Historical Society and its museum and library in Shaker Heights, Ohio. It analyzes secondary sources of information and history, primary sources such as eyewitness accounts, records, annual reports, unpublished histories, and museum circulation records. Library policies are ascertained and services identified. Informal interviews with the museum curator and librarian indicate that the organization is growing in the area of professionalism and pro-actively planning for the future. Through the library and museum's collection, staff and service and through the efforts of the society's current members, the Shaker faith and lifestyle remain accessible to today's inquirer. As the remaining handful of Shakers become extinct, this library and historical society will preserve a record of their life and culture. (Contains 40 references.) (MAS)

This practicum was designed to address an inadequacy in the knowledge base of ninth grade students with regard to art history and it's connection with historical events. The major goal was to make the students aware of art history and it's significance in human history. The study developed a Ninth Grade Art History Diagnostic Test and an Artistic Comprehension Evaluation instrument in order to ascertain areas of weakness in the art history knowledge base of ninth graders. The research project developed a nine part art history curriculum that ranged from prehistoric art through the 20th century. The curriculum was presented to the students weekly in the form of art history packets. The packets contained a brief history of each period, a worksheet related to that period, and a sheet on which to depict an art project related to the period. Analysis of the data revealed the participants in the program responded positively to the introduction of the curriculum. The results of a final examination which corresponded to a section of the artistic comprehension evaluation instrument showed marked improvements. In addition, students maintained a portfolio of their art history packets that demonstrated the instruction had been received and that they had responded appropriately. Questionnaires and evaluation sheets are attached. (RD)

This is a study of the research communities in history and political science at Kent State University (Ohio). The purpose is to provide a profile of historians and political scientists and to discover the kinds of information they use for research. A survey/questionnaire was circulated to the history and political science departments. Information was solicited from faculty and graduate students in both departments. The findings show many areas of similar resource use. Despite some similarities, differences in access and method remain. Historians remain more traditional, using mostly older print sources, while the political science scholars use more current up to date resources like CD-ROM and online databases. Overall, many of the findings strongly support what has been found in previous studies. Tables illustrate demographic data, library use, typical information sources, convenient and inconvenient information formats, and percentages borrowed research materials. Survey instruments are appended. (Contains 21 references.) (Author/TMK)

The history of the Coshocton Public Library (Ohio) is traced from 1872 through 1992, highlighting its connection with the Johnson-Humrickhouse Museum. In response to a newspaper editorial, citizens of Coshocton formed the Coshocton Library Association in 1872. The library evolved through the years as a free school library, a municipal library, a school district library, and a county district library. During this evolution, the Coshocton Library Board of Trustees supported the educational and recreational literary pursuits of the county's citizens through times of economic security as well as instability. The acceptance of the establishment and operation of the Johnson-Humrickhouse Museum in 1929 began the development of a unique library/museum partnership, one of only six currently operating in Ohio. (Contains 23 references.) (Author/SLD)

In 1965, as the University of Akron (Ohio) was approaching its centennial, it was decided to create two archival programs. One was the University Archives, which preserves records and other items dealing with the history and development of the institution. A different approach, but one that was closely intertwined with the University Archives, was the effort by John A. Popplestone, a Professor of Psychology, to collect documentary evidence of the history of psychology. These nationally oriented archives became known as the Archives of the History of American Psychology. The University of Akron subsequently became one of the charter members of the Ohio Network of American History Research Centers when the network was formed in July 1970. These programs represent different approaches to collecting archival sources, an institutional basis, a subject orientation, and a geographical focus. This study examines the establishment and advances made by these programs in their early years. In 1973, with the move of the Archives into the new University Library, the first phase of the development of the archival programs was successfully completed. (Author/SLD)

This practicum report describes a curriculum model of student-centered activities that increase knowledge and improve student attitudes during the study of theater history. The target group was comprised of 30 second year drama students in a suburban high school. The model contains five strategies for increasing knowledge and improving attitude: small/large group interaction, viewing and listening activities, practice and drill, research, and a collaborative public performance project. Success of the practicum was measured through the use of checklists, anecdotal records, rating scales, observation, and teacher prepared tests, the results of which were compared to the objectives. (Author)

This annotated bibliography lists almost 100 items. It focuses on materials on the social aspects of the history of medicine published after 1981 because there is no other bibliography that does so. The research design relies on the bibliographic method. The end-product is a systematic, enumerative bibliography. The guide includes 13 general reference works; 3 guides; 9 bibliographies; 12 biographies; 8 dictionaries and encyclopedias; 6 indexes and online services; 3 directories; 33 monographs on social aspects of medicine; 5 periodicals; and 5 associations. (KRN)

In 1903, Andrew Carnegie provided the community of Lincoln, Illinois, with a $25,000 grant to build a public library. The purpose of this study was to determine if the Lincoln Public Library conforms to the general characteristics of Carnegie public libraries as defined by George S. Bobinski, a leading researcher in the area of Carnegie public libraries. This comprehensive history of the library include: (1) a study of the existing library service in the community at the time of the awarding of the grant; (2) information regarding the architecture of the building, including the selection of a building site, original building plans, and later additions and renovations made to the building; (3) the community's method for raising the money for the annual maintenance pledge for the library; and (4) a study of the current use of the library building. Data for the study were compiled from primary and secondary data sources, including the Carnegie Library Correspondence microfilm, interviews with past and present librarians, and original library records and building documents. An examination of this information shows that the Lincoln Library does conform to the general characteristics of Carnegie Libraries. Three appendices provide a chronology of key events in the history of the Lincoln Library; copies of stock, a list of original shareholders, and the articles of incorporation for the Lincoln Library Association; and a pictorial history of the library. (Contains 57 references.) (KRN)

This paper describes the development from 1963 to 1986 of the Clark County (Nevada) Library District, which includes the rapidly growing urban area of Las Vegas. It notes that, besides responding successfully to a population growth of 330% over two decades, the system was also able to fulfill its original goal of developing local libraries that would become cultural centers for the communities they served. Today system libraries are also home to the symphony orchestra, three professional theater companies, an art museum, and a children's museum. This paper is based on interviews with Jean Ford, who instigated the campaign to found the district, and with district librarians. It also draws on documents describing the system's growth, including a description of the initial petition drive begun in 1963; statistics detailing the growth of the library and the area it serves; the development of cooperative relationships with existing libraries; the institution of a county-wide automated catalog system in 1974; outreach to unserved areas via bookmobile and on-site services; building projects; a discussion of staffing and staff contributions; establishment of a volunteer program; and response to revenue needs and fundraising strategies. Several maps of the service area, documents used in the original petition drive, circulation statistics, annual budget statistics, number of patrons, and total holdings are appended. (Contains 39 references.) (KRN)

A preservation census was conducted of selected Dewey ranges of the volumes located in the mezzanine area of the Social Science Department of the Toledo-Lucas County Public Library main branch. This collection is housed in a non-circulating, semi-supervised stack area and includes approximately 500 volumes in the fields of bibliography and rare books and manuscripts. The unusual nature of this collection in a mid-western, medium-sized public library was verified by bibliographic searching and tabulation using the OCLC bibliographic data base. A short narrative history of the collection's development was developed using archives and interviews. Information gathered during a de visa examination of the collection was used to generate statistics relating to the history of the collection's development and its present physical condition, and was used to report the data in a usable, informative manner for use in planning for future preservation efforts. Four appendixes contain: Interview Questions; Acquisition Numbers by Years; Herbert Sewell Staff Memorandum; and Field Examination Form. Fourteen graphs and eight tables summarize and illustrate the findings of the study. (Contains 40 references.) (Author/ALF)

Utilizing data derived from numerous sources (institutions, Alaska Native organizations, Federal and State agencies, conferences, etc.), this descriptive study is divided into 6 chapters which trace the evolution of and the necessity for Alaska Native higher education. Following a detailed introduction, Chapter 2 describes the physical and environmental setting of Alaska and its various ethnic groups (Aleuts; Tlingits, Haidas, and Tsimshians; Eskimos; and Athabascans). Chapter 3 provides historical analysis (1741-1972) of the socio-political changes relative to Native educational development resulting from contact with Euro-American cultures (the Russian period, the American missions, the "government missions", and the evolution and dismantlement of the Native and non-Native 2 school system). Chapter 4 details the influence of Statehood and the land claims movement on the evolution of the Alaska Native's need and/or desire for cultural survival and ethnic self-determination. Documenting the lack of Alaska Native participation in the social affairs of the State, Chapter 5 emphasizes the relationship between higher education and social participation via examination of: public and private institutions; higher education and the Alaska Native peoples; a profile of the Native college student; special institutional programs; the educational needs and the future of Alaska Native higher education. (Author/JC)

In order to evaluate the treatment of death in children's literature, and to compile a bibliography of books related to this theme, four areas of a child's relation to death were explored. The first area of investigation was of concepts of death evidenced at the child's various developmental stages, as documented in numerous psychological studies. The second area studied was the various reactions to death which a child might display. The third area discussed was the cultural attitudes of present day American society toward death, with special emphasis on how these attitudes influence the child's conception of death. Lastly, a review was made of American children's literature from colonial times to the present, noting the treatment of death as a reflection of the cultural values of each era. Twenty-two books of juvenile fiction, for children up to age 12, were evaluated in terms of their treatment of death as a major theme. Most of the books were found to be of outstanding value in acquainting the young child with wholesome death concepts, were psychologically valid, and complied with accepted social attitudes toward the subject. (Author/SL)

In this dissertation the author has surveyed reports of experimental studies comparing discovery-oriented instruction with expository instruction. The studies analyzed focused on retention or transfer and were concerned with five subject matter areas: mathematics, science, language, geography, and vocational education. The author reports that no clear evidence of a single superior method of teaching was indicated, but, rather, that many effective teaching strategies are available. Effective strategies can be based on discovery or expository approaches and are generally usable over a broad range of content fields. Observing that several of the studies reviewed had employed questionable research designs, statistical techniques, or instrumentation, the author provides guidelines for strengthening future research in the area. He also suggests questions and problems which emerge from his study and which might be the subject of future research. (SD)

This paper presents the history of parent education in the United States and describes a mother-toddler program designed to help young mothers acquire knowledge and skills in child rearing through modeling, counseling and discussion. Included are reviews of current methods of education for child rearing, the need for programs to aid young parents, and the use of group discussion as a technique for educating parents. The development and implementation of a program for 10 mothers and their toddlers is described in detail. Phenomena found to be unique to a group of mothers and toddlers were: the issues of separation, style of participation, and the nature and development of the leader. These and other aspects of mother-toddler groups are discussed. Modern urban society offers little opportunity to experience the support system that can exist in intergenerational family relations. Also there is little opportunity to learn about child rearing in traditional ways. (Author/SB)

This study offers a description of the daytime programs and facilities serving the preschool population in Denmark, with emphasis on the types of programs offered, their administrative organization, minimum standards, scope and cost, and supply and demand. The greatest detail is given to the "bornehave" and "bornehaveklasse" serving the 3-to 7-year-old population. These programs are seen in their historical perspective and contemporary context with regard to the Danish social responsibility and policies for child welfare. Educational philosophies behind the programs and the official goals for them are reported. Other institutions generally related to the early childhood education process (such as colleges for teacher training and further education, education libraries, research institutes, teacher centers) were investigated. The journals and organizations publishing materials relevant to child care are reviewed, and the nature and extent of Danish research in early childhood are reported. (Author/ED)

Originally called the American Documentation Institute, over the years the American Society for Information Science (ASIS) has changed its emphasis from documentation to information science. During its 40 year history, the society has incorporated into its membership numerous individuals and agencies whose activities include classification, coding, information networks, computational linguistics, cybernetics, etc. The society is a non-profit, national organization with a solid financial base, and its activities include research, development, application, and education in the field of information science. (EMH)

This study forecasts the probable percentage scores and letter grades that will be received by various types of academic libraries if the collection and staff formulas of the 1975 Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) Standards for College Libraries are used. The projected scores and grades are established through the use of information received from a nationwide random sample of libraries that come within the scope of the new standards. These collection and staff figures are accompanied by specific confidence and tolerance levels. An evaluation of the products of these formulas tends to substantiate the study hypotheses which states that the new standards are apt to move libraries toward a common level of mediocrity. Modifications needed to make the current formulas effective and suggestions for further standards' research are presented in the form of conclusions and recommendations. The study is based on survey data, as well as primary and secondary sources. Sixteen tables, a bibliography, and appendixes on the ACRL standards and the survey forms and techniques are included. (Author)

The variable nature of literacy is discussed in chapter one of this paper, including problems of arbitrary standards, instruments, and criteria. In the second chapter, some of the historical roots of the concept of literacy are traced both to show how the concept of literacy evolved and to show how literacy has always been closely tied to the spirit of the times. The social, political, and educational uses and abuses of literacy assessment are examined and an attempt is made to place current efforts in a social, political, and educational context, including current assessments of functional literacy. The need to assess actual literacy demands and individuals' abilities to handle those demands is stressed in chapter three. In chapter four, possible instruments to do this type of assessment are proposed for job-related literacy demands and the results of a field-testing of these instruments is presented. (MKM)

This paper, written for a National Archives staff training course discusses the use of computers in the classroom as reflective of the larger social trend toward an increasing dependency on automated systems to assist business and government in their efforts to more effectively manage and retrieve information. The paper also demonstrates the advantages of including elements of archival description in education units, particularly for the multimedia records of contemporary history, and explains the benefits of utilizing the expertise of both education specialists and archivists in developing education units--all of which would ultimately enhance the outreach mission of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA): to encourage learning in history, promote the use of NARA's records, and expand investigative skills in research in primary source documents. It is noted that education units, which are currently produced for secondary level students, only include the record group identification and content description of the individual documents presented on a given topic, and that the inclusion of archival information would enhance the unit by providing additional information about the function and organization of the agencies or offices that created the records. (14 references) (MAB)

The history of multimedia and descriptions of various multimedia events from 1900 to 1972 are presented. The development of multimedia events is described for four eras and four main classifications of events: multiscreen presentations, electronic media and performers, environmental theater, and environments. Five appendixes include a discussion of terms used in the report, a chart of multimedia events, a chronological list of important technical advances in multimedia equipment, letters, and an informal index. A 20 page bibliography concludes the document. (CH)

Impermanence is an inherent characteristic of plants and gardens. It simultaneously defines them and complicates their conservation and representation. The thesis will explore how impermanence is handled and experienced in gardens as a heritage tourism encounter, using original field observations, interviews, and archive research. This involves three key areas of observation which bring original insight to traditional garden history discourse: How the practices of garden heritage tourism impact the relationship between the garden visitor, the garden, and its plants. How change brought about by impermanence is interpreted as part of the garden visitor experience. Identifying how our understanding of garden heritage experience would be supported by a broader field of garden heritage studies. This original research will show that the current experience and presentation of heritage gardens risks promoting 'plant blindness'. Generic perma-season prettiness results in reduced botanical engagement and a concomitant reduction in heritage significance. Furthermore, the relationship between the visitor and the garden is part of heritage's meaning-making process and without mindfulness and attention being facilitated in the garden experience their function and value is further eroded. As a primary case study, Kelmscott Manor, Home of Arts & Crafts pioneer William Morris, is a garden that presents the potential to enact ideas of how we might creatively engage with the natural world and how people in the past have done so. Change is part of the practice of heritage gardening though is largely absent in the visitors interpretation materials, leaving the visitor with the belief that the garden is a visibly unchanged doorway to the past. Presenting this conflict of understanding through the field observation research makes an original contribution to our knowledge of the detrimental impact this has on our relationship with heritage gardens and the visitor's perceptions of their authenticity. This research takes a broad transdisciplinary approach to the increasingly vulnerable position of plant-based historic gardens and the need for their inclusion in a broader field of heritage studies. It places the visitor central to the heritage, with a focus on participatory meaning making and interpretation. Along with the necessity of continual creative input for garden heritage to recontextualize what we have come to consider as 'authentic' in heritage gardens. The damaged relationship between people and plants is prescient in this time of climate disruption. The research highlighted in the context of the pandemic, that when faced with crisis the population leaned in to their more-than-human relations. This reaction placed greater emphasis on visiting heritage gardens, some of the few remaining places where we could interact with the vegetal world and re-learn our historic connections. Research was focused on the case studies: Kelmscott Manor, Sissinghurst Gardens, Charleston Farmhouse, and Oxford Botanic Gardens.

This work investigates the mythical and historical paradeigmata in Aristophanes' extant comedies, in order to assess the practice of exemplarity in comedy and broaden our knowledge of exemplarity in 5th century literature. In the first part of this work (ch. 1-5), I highlight significant aspects of the comic paradeigmata in terms of formal structures, rhetorical processes and functions, through the analysis of 5 case studies (Lys. 271-285; Lys. 671-682; Nub. 900-907, 1043-1057, 1061-1072, 1075-1082; Eq. 810-819; Av. 1553-1564). This analysis portrays comic paradeigmata as a specific articulation of exemplarity (ch. 6). I argue that the comic poet maintains the traditional use of paradeigmata as means of persuasion and also develops additional functions, required by the literary genre, namely dramatic advancement and humour. In the second part of this work (ch. 7-9), I reconstruct the relations of exemplarity in comedy and in other coeval literary genres, i.e. tragedy, historiography and oratory. This comparative analysis reveals close connections between comic and tragic exemplarity, as well as occasional contacts between the paradeigmata in comedy and those in historiography and oratory. These results suggest a progressive evolution of exemplarity in comedy. A communal use of paradeigmata, which meets the demands imposed by the dramatic performance, seems to have been developed both in tragedy and comedy. A further development appears to be typical of comedy, which has absorbed some features of the paradeigmata in other genres and created the function of humour. Overall, this investigation shows the deep interactions, in terms of paradeigmata, of comedy and contemporary literary genres, and emphasizes the relevance of comedy to reconstruct exemplarity in the 5th century.

This thesis examines the first ten years of the campaign of political violence that was waged by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) during the Northern Ireland Troubles (c.1969-1998). The primary aim is to understand how and why the PIRA chose to apply violence, and the consequences of these decisions. What is significant about this thesis, is the volume and range of PIRA violence that has been disaggregated and assessed - fatal and non-fatal acts of violence; targeted assassinations that were planned and executed as intended; operations that were stillborn, off-target, or thwarted by the security forces; attacks that maimed or killed unintended targets; and acts that were never intended to and did not cause physical harm to others. The work uncovers a richer account of the relationship between PIRA agency, chance, and the character and consequences of PIRA violence than has hitherto been possible. The research has involved a detailed investigation of the PIRA's activity to establish how, when where and why the violence took different forms. The PIRA's operations have been examined in minute detail to identify and evaluate the significance of various characteristics that are apparent in each stage of the process: its design, execution, outcome, and reception. This has involved first, identifying why the PIRA selected certain targets and tactics, and the extent to which they perpetrated violence with accuracy and discrimination in each scenario. Second, the different outcomes that are produced - directly or indirectly - as a result of PIRA violence (including the material damage, deaths and injuries caused) and the relationship between these outcomes and the actions taken by the perpetrator(s), have been explored. Finally, the thesis considers how and why the armed struggle was perceived in disparate ways by others.

In the late Elizabethan and Jacobean period, monopolies emerged as a crucial tool of crown financial policy. In response, subjects petitioned crown, council, and parliament to lament the changes these grants wrought on their trades and livelihoods. This thesis will offer an analysis of anti-monopoly petitioning activity between 1590-1625. It will demonstrate the vibrancy and sophistication of petitioning in this often-overlooked period, whilst illuminating the important intersection between politics and economics at the turn of the seventeenth century. This economic issue politicised subjects, who turned to petitioning to lament the effects of this intrusive form of prerogative finance. They embraced the opportunities to approach parliament, council, monarch, and even new commissions charged with managing economic petitions. Subjects proved willing to draw on wider discourses in political culture and economic thought as bargaining strategies within petitions designed to further their own economic interests. This thesis will adopt a case study approach, focusing on the monopolisation of leather, starch, glass, and cloth. It will draw on a range of sources, predominantly manuscript, from such archives as the State Papers and individual livery companies. The role of London's livery and overseas trading companies both as petitioners, and as a source of concerted opposition themselves, will be explored throughout. In addition, the capacity for subjects to organise petitioning activity independently of the auspices of corporate organisation will be shown. By analysing often overlooked petitioning campaigns, the complex alliances between courtiers and artisans made possible in this era of monopolisation will also be illuminated. Through a focus on these anti-monopoly petitioning campaigns, this thesis will add to understandings of manuscript petitioning culture in the late Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, whilst demonstrating the importance of economic issues to the politics of the early modern public sphere.

This thesis brings multiple methodologies together to examine where we might find pleasure and sexual subjectivity for women in later medieval England. At once working to uncover the assumptions within historians' theoretical frames and lay new groundwork, in the Introduction I explore the semantic and theoretical challenges, and propose some new methods, focussing on pleasure as an operative term.

This thesis interrogates sources about vagrants and vagrancy across the workhouses of six poor law unions in the Midlands between 1834 and 1900. Vagrants have been a widely neglected group from poor law studies because their presence in the workhouse was temporary. Although scholars have acknowledged vagrants, their lifestyles, and to some extent their agencies, few have explored the breadth and depth of vagrant lives nor their welfare experiences. Discussions about vagrants are most often framed around the law and their legal removal and these studies are typically centred in London, and the early modern period. This thesis seeks to reconstruct the lives of nineteenth century vagrants both as individuals and as a collective social group. The everyday navigation of poor relief across the Midlands is remodelled through each chapter, informed by wider frameworks of literature spanning traditional poor law histories, media, crime, and folklore, alongside identity studies. As such, the thesis relocates and studies vagrants as they travelled across regions looking for poor relief. Vagrants were complicated selves and traditional histories have added to their complexities, but too often they also created misunderstood definitions by accepting the broad-ranging characteristics for vagrants written into legislation. This thesis shows that the labelling of vagrancy was weaponized, and from a contemporary perspective - a label never told the whole story of the shifting boundaries of community and belonging. In fact, it was the push and pull forces between acute economic circumstances and habitual vagrant lifestyle factors that decided whether a vagrant was considered dangerous to the community. Rarely have historians refined the complexity of vagrant definitions to such an extent as in this thesis. Thus, although vagrants were not included in original poor law legislation, and were an unwanted presence in the workhouse, the lack of regulations about what to do with vagrants was a legal loophole that they exploited to ensure they received welfare. Identifying key themes around vagrant identity through fragmented sources, this thesis bridges the historiographical and methodological gap between traditional poor law histories and New Histories from Below of vagrancy.

In this thesis, I argue that temporality is an essential ontological feature in and of Hegel's conception of the idea of freedom. I argue that the relation between the idea of self-determining freedom and causal necessity in Hegel's philosophy is self-reflexively historical and temporal as well as logical and ontological. The self-reflexive historicity of the idea of freedom is irreducible, such that it exceeds and goes beyond any particular historical juncture. Hegel's formulation of freedom, being-with-oneself-in-one's-other (Beisichselbstsein in einem Anderen), not only expresses the necessary interrelation of collective social freedom by establishing a necessary relation between self-determination and otherness but it also signifies philosophy's retroactive comprehension of the inner necessity (die innere Notwendigkeit) of freedom's actualisation in history through philosophy's elevation into a 'system of science.' I demonstrate, first, that Hegel's idea of freedom is temporal and historical through an examination of his early Jena writings. I show that logical and temporal movements are expressions of the same immanent development of Hegel's presentation of philosophical 'science' that is self-referentially and irreducibly historicist. I further identify two forms of temporality in Hegel's logic, the temporality of logical time (die logische Zeit) and the logic of retroactive temporality of inner necessity, which illustrates how temporality is an ontological feature of Hegel's conception of logic. The logical idea of freedom, the absolute idea established in the Science of Logic, designates being-with-oneself-in-one's-other through the unification of the self-determining concept and objectivity. I then argue that the philosophical importance of Christianity, for Hegel, shows how being-with-oneself-in-one's-other is a temporal formulation, as well as signifying freedom, insofar as Christianity's representational form conveys how human freedom sublates the external causal factors that function as its necessary ground. I end the thesis by arguing that Hegel's political philosophy is self-reflexively and irreducibly temporal and historical. Self-reflexivity and irreducibility constitute a reciprocal relationship immanent to Hegel's idea of freedom as a social and political actuality and its ongoing process of actualisation in historical time.

This PhD examines elite feminine dress in the Republic of Genoa and the politics of display in portraits by Flemish painters Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) and Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641). This thesis combines art and dress history to demonstrate how Genoese women harnessed clothes and images to negotiate their social worlds. I argue that opulent dress and exquisite portraiture afforded these women agency in a milieu defined by its visual and material literacy, and within a fashion system shaped by the political, cultural, and economic consequences of globalism. As key agents in Spain's imperial machine, Genoa's nobles managed the expansion of imperial dominion and the movement of goods and peoples. They participated in a global idiom of luxury, which cannot be understood without Genoa's role in the histories of colonisation and slavery. Looking more closely at modes of representation within the portraits, I explore the valences of light and shade as they materialise in the dressed bodies of female sitters and their attendants. Charged with aesthetic, scientific, and racial meanings, the play of light in Rubens's and van Dyck's paintings is mobilised to mould sitters' pictorial identities. I also broaden understandings of display to encompass noblewomen's engagement with elite spaces. This thesis uses the backgrounds of Genoese portraits to investigate the ways in which Genoa's noblewomen engaged with affective materials and social spaces within villa gardens. This thesis thus stitches together the material and sensory qualities of material culture with embodied gender performances and practices of early modern knowledge making. Engaging with contexts underexplored by existing iconographical and compositional studies of Rubens's and van Dyck's portraiture, this thesis brings a critical reading of dress, materiality, and space into dialogue with recent histories of the early modern gendered body, artistic and scientific thought, empire, and global commodities. As such, this thesis is a timely interdisciplinary intervention into wider conversations about identity construction, and material and visual cultures in the global past.

This thesis analyses the use and application of longform narrative podcasting as an interpretation method for heritage sites. Penrhyn Castle, a prominent National Trust property in Wales, is used as a case study for demonstrating best practice in heritage podcasting and provides the focus for the creative portion of this doctoral project. Podlediad Penrhyn is a five-part podcast that has been created to addresses and communicate core themes and narratives associated with the history of the site. The design of the podcast is based on an assessment of the prominent traditional form of site-specific heritage interpretation, namely the sequence of guidebooks published by the National Trust for Penrhyn Castle, coupled with the utility to be found in the multilayered storytelling methods of a digital audio text. This text was created in part due to the massive popularity of longform narrative podcasting within the true crime genre, which has enraptured a global audience in recent years. Whilst digital practice within heritage is a prevalent area of study, this thesis adds to the slimmer body of literature examining digital storytelling in heritage and makes an original contribution to the still emerging application of podcasting to heritage spheres. My primary research question is: 'How can podcasting be used to communicate the multilayered narrative of a heritage site?' The nature of my case study, Penrhyn Castle, allows this question to be more specifically directed at the interpretation of county houses and landed estates. This research was conducted across the period of the global coronavirus pandemic. Serendipitously, the rapid adoption of digital connectivity during the lockdowns dovetailed with this research into a novel heritage interpretation method. By utilising a digital creative artefact, I encourage an assessment of heritage interpretation methods that enable heritages sites to reach and, importantly, connect with audiences off-site, through use of digital and globally accessible methods. This research shows that practitioners can use podcasting to highlight the multilayered narrative of a site's history in ways that are unachievable through more traditional forms of interpretation. Whilst country house interpretation has traditionally tended to focus on family, art, and architectural history in their narratives, as seen in the guidebook analysis, my approach allows for the interconnected stories of landed estates to be presented as multilocational, multigenerational, multicultural, and evolving for digitally connected audiences. Heritage organisations are currently searching for novel methods of telling well-rounded narratives and through this study I offer an alternative framework to deliver on this sector objective. This study also informs heritage practitioners that a modern approach to storytelling within historical interpretation is not only possible but can touch upon aspects of a site's narrative that are otherwise difficult to communicate in single-channel media like the guidebook. Podlediad Penrhyn is presented as a model to be readopted and reapplied to other heritage sites internationally.

A comprehensive study of Welsh country house interpretation has not previously been undertaken. Much of what has been written regarding Welsh country house interpretation focuses on specific aspects of a property that are presented in interpretation, for example the servants at Erddig Hall, rather than interpretation practice itself. This research is underpinned by the question 'to what extent is the interpretation of country houses in Wales effective?' As part of this assessment, the research understands who creates interpretation at country houses in Wales, what it is based on, and who it is created for. The thesis presents qualitative and quantitative data resulting from an online analysis of social media and websites, a survey of 306 respondents, and interviews conducted with 20 leading practitioners or custodians of country houses in Wales. It identifies the uses for and shortcomings of interpretation online and on-site. Furthermore, the thesis outlines what people want from a country house visit, assessing interpretation content, as well as the limitations, challenges, and opportunities in analysing interpretation methods. The role and relevance of the Welsh country house has shifted considerably over the last century. Yet, the relationship between relevance, significance, interpretation, and the country house are critical to their futures. Through interpretation, past and present significance can be communicated to audiences to maintain or create relevance, which, in turn, can generate audiences to ensure their preservation. This was threatened during the coronavirus pandemic, and interpretation during the pandemic is discussed in this thesis. "Authentic of what?" is a question posed in this thesis. Country houses are often multiperiod in their architecture and design, and across their histories typically housed multiple generations of families or different families. Consequently, this thesis discusses whether authentic interpretation can exist at all when there is so much to be represented. The prioritisation and navigation of multiple narratives and time periods in interpretation is discussed in relation to this issue. Stemming from the research presented, it is recommended that an overarching interpretation toolkit is developed that should be made available to country house practitioners and custodians to aid those who may not have the experience or expertise required to create effective interpretation. This toolkit could be partially informed by a report of social media and website use and output to aid practitioners and custodians with their online objectives through interpretation. The marketing of sites through interpretation represents a core focus in this thesis. Furthermore, it is advised that practitioners and custodians of country houses in Wales have access to site-specific repositories of information that can be drawn upon to create accurate, engaging interpretation. These are necessary owing to the frequency of inaccuracies or embellishments that this research encountered. The interpretation of country houses in Wales is changing out of a necessity for change and a desire for change, outlined in this research, moving toward honest and holistic interpretation which moves beyond the traditional focus on the lineage of male owners associated with particular sites, their political and military accomplishments, and the architectural and art history of the houses. Country houses in Wales were significant, are significant, and will be significant for many generations to come. Interpretation has a substantial role to play in communicating this significance.

This thesis explores the relationship between Irish America and the Northern Irish civil rights movement from the mid-1960s to 1971. Using oral history interviews, government documents, newspapers, personal correspondence, and published material from groups in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the United States, this study examines the Irish American response to the civil rights movement over time.

This thesis examines the impact of increased military duties on the social and political evolution of urban commoners of the Russian Northwest in the early 19th century. The impact of increased recruit and militia levies and billeting duty in the 1800s-1820s is examined in relation to the communes of three district capitals: Novaia Ladoga, Sofia-Tsarskoe Selo, and Gdov. The focus is on the practices, actions, and motivations of individuals, communes of merchants and meshchane, and town councils. These increased duties led to the modernization of social relationships and political culture. Increased conscription revealed the limits of the communal process of nomination for service: with the first mass militia levy announced in 1806, communes failed to supply enough soldiers on time. The government had therefore to revise the system of nomination. The practice of nomination for dissolute behaviour was put on a stable legal footing and family recruit groups were introduced, reducing conflict, delays, and disputes within communes. Local merchant elites were crucial to the performance of military duties: the richest families controlled the town council, organizing fundraising during the recruit and especially the militia levies of 1806-07 and 1812. The merchants themselves made additional contributions. But those in district towns were heavily impacted by the upheavals of war, the growth of taxation, and other financial demands: the local elites significantly contracted from 1807, and especially after 1812. Relationships between councils and the Chief of Police and Civil Governor were likewise crucial to the performance of military duties. Effective cooperation with urban police on the ground helped in the supply of recruits, money, and equipment during levies. The Governor played a role as mediator whenever disputes and conflicts arose between commoners and police or army officers, most of which were solved by negotiation: commoners and councils were not as powerless as often imagined. Following the war, there was a growing demand for the equalization of duties and tax burdens among commoners in the 1820s; dissatisfaction with officialdom grew, which manifested itself in cholera riots, e.g., in Staraia Rusa in 1831.

This thesis argues for a recentring of musicological narratives on the subject of 'Vienna 1900' and offers four case studies that examine the transformation of vernacular culture alongside the expansion of the city from 1870 to the outbreak of the First World War. I propose an alternative set of paradigms for understanding Vienna during this period by exploring musical life in the suburbs and the impact of urban planning on street music and noise. The main themes covered in my four chapters are: a study of sound and noise abatement campaigns in relation to political theatre and social crisis, moving from the voices of working-class communities to the musical experimentation of suburban enclaves; an extended biography of the Schrammelmusik phenomenon, its position on the threshold of two musical worlds, and its urban-rural networks that contributed to a blurring of boundaries between mythology and reality; an analysis of Wienerlied texts which provide sharply etched commentaries on metropolitan life at the edge of liberal bourgeois experience and their role in tracing the shifting subjectivities of suburban dwellers; and a portrait of clocks and barrel organs that channels the familiar image of the organ grinder through the idea of fractured temporalities, as revealed in different approaches to time synchronisation and urban rhythms. Throughout my four chapters, I emphasise the materiality of music-making at street level and the social fabric of suburban musical establishments. I aim to reposition narratives that stress fin-de-siècle Vienna as a place apart by adopting an expanded conception of centre and periphery relationships which reaches beyond the city and borderlands of neighbouring empires. I argue that by offering a more pluralistic notion of the vernacular, refracted through a study of acoustic and temporal environments, one can begin to understand more fully how the changing identities of Vienna's population were intimately connected with the accelerated reconfiguration of the city towards the end of the nineteenth century.

This thesis for the degree of Doctor of Letters (DLitt) in history focuses on eleven single-author papers in peer-reviewed journals, three single-author book chapters, and three single-author books: 'Ada English: Patriot and Psychiatrist' (2014), 'He Lost Himself Completely: Shell Shock and its treatment at Dublin's Richmond War Hospital (1916-19)' (2014), and 'Hearing Voices: The History of Psychiatry in Ireland' (2016). In the accompanying critical appraisal, I explore these publications in the context of the criteria for higher degrees. In this work, I use my training in both history and psychiatry to balance 'demedicalisation' with 'medicalisation' in order to maintain critical historical awareness and avoid the omission of clinical medicine from history. This paradigm supports a dynamic balance between historical awareness and the medical gaze. 'Hearing Voices: The History of Psychiatry in Ireland' makes original contributions to several specific areas (e.g., particular institutions, various diagnoses, pieces of legislation, health policies, leading figures) and concludes that, despite Ireland's high rate of psychiatric hospitalisation, Ireland never had an epidemic of mental illness - we had an epidemic of 'mental hospitals'. A combination of poverty, poor healthcare, hastily enacted legislation, and a preference for institutional solutions to social problems resulted in Ireland's vast asylum system which was, I argue, as much a social creation as a medical one. 'Hearing Voices' draws on clinical archives from various 'mental hospitals', as well as legislation, policy documents, and historical and medical literature. I performed biochemical analysis of water from Tobar na nGealt ('well of the mad') in Kerry, to investigate reports of high levels of lithium, used for the treatment of bipolar disorder. 'Hearing Voices' provides a unique diversity of historical, social, epidemiological, and medical evidence, and original analysis, to explore an interplay of social and medical influences that was complex, dynamic, and fascinating.

This thesis examines attitudes towards individuals and groups of men who were identified as gender non-conforming in England during the long eighteenth century. This gender non-conformity was assigned or implied because of the domestic inclinations of the men in question. Many men explored here were identified as cotqueans. Those who were not demonstrate a set of domestic identity markers that link them directly to the trope. The thesis explores the impact of cotqueanary, or domestic gender non-conformity, on elite men's sense of identity, their experiences of the traditional and chosen family, marriage, fatherhood, their role in public life, and their homosocial life. It demonstrates that domestic gender non-conformity did have adverse repercussions but that, at the elite level at least, this was not absolute. Where negative repercussions are perceived, they stemmed mainly from the secrecy facilitated between men in domestic spaces. This secrecy expedited a range of accusations which included allusions to political plotting and sex between men. Yet this research also demonstrates how men exploited their ancestral lineage, and the structures of the traditional family, to participate in a traditional form of elite male patriarchy. This project draws together a range of qualitative material which includes life-writing, correspondence, documents from the proceedings of the Old Bailey, plays, poetry, pamphlets, travel writing, art, and newspapers. In so doing, it offers the first examination of Georgian male domestic gender non-conformity, insisting on the emotional significance of the home for men. This moves scholars from the heteronormative 'separate spheres' model of home life which continues to dominate the history of the home. This research poses opportunities for historical interrogation beyond the home, and addresses histories of architecture, material culture, parenthood, the family, violence, and the law. In bringing these elements together, it sets out the terrain of a new, domestic queer history.

Military music was pervasive in Britain and Ireland during the French Wars but has received limited attention from historians. This thesis interprets martial music-making as a core military activity and an integral part of wider musical culture. A critical tool of communication and discipline, music sounded the alarm, aided recruitment, and governed soldiers' routines and bodily movements. Officers invested heavily in military bands, regarding them as social amenities, sources of prestige, and essential for maintaining soldiers' morale. Regiments competed and cooperated in a seller's market for musical labour, engaging knowledgeable civilian performers and training a mass of novice instrumentalists through a cogent instructional programme. Attention to music reveals the depth and reciprocity of interactions between the military and society. Regimental bands provided sought-after entertainment at myriad public events, staged free open-air concerts for socially diverse audiences, and amplified wartime expressions of patriotism. Military performers also promoted cultural dissemination and exchange, rehearsing eclectic repertoires and adopting melodies from other regiments, armies, and peoples. Military mobilisation palpably shaped nineteenth-century musical culture. Volunteer and militia bands established in wartime continued playing together for decades after Waterloo while discharged regimental instrumentalists actively contributed to provincial and colonial musical life as teachers, performers, and retailers. The expansion of military music-making also encouraged the post-war spread of amateur wind and brass bands, which were often led by old soldiers and modelled on regimental lines. Ingrained in popular culture after two decades of conflict, martial music was widely emulated by political reformers with the involvement of musically trained ex-servicemen. Military music, in sum, was an everyday and intrusive part of wartime life, a source of entertainment and opportunity, and a politically charged exponent of both patriotism and protest. The legacies of martial music-making, as this thesis argues, echoed far beyond the barrack gates.

This thesis explores the role of the parliamentary state in places of education during the period of the Rump Parliament (1649-53) by focusing on the committee for regulating the universities (CRU). Although there are many studies devoted to education and its reform during this period, the role of the state in this sphere is largely overlooked. This thesis addresses this oversight, demonstrating that the Commonwealth government and the regimes of the 1640s and 1650s more widely were important agents in educational matters and were deeply involved in places of learning. The Rump's priorities for schools and universities are analysed and it is shown that the government wished to work inside the traditional structure of educational institutions rather than to overhaul them. This thesis also offers a fresh approach to the Commonwealth government and period. Historians often examine the Rump through its legislation and events at Westminster which results in a depiction of the government's life as characterised by infrequent spasms of activity. The study below challenges this interpretation and argues that the regime ought to be analysed through the workings of its committees, like the CRU, and the implementation of its rule in institutional or local contexts. As is demonstrated, it is necessary to look at both the centre and the localities when discussing the Rump. This thesis thus focuses on both the members of government and those of educational establishments, examining the agency of the latter group and illustrating the widespread existence of cooperation and consensus in the period. To achieve its aims, this thesis adopts an archive-based approach and uses the records of numerous places of learning, including many not often included in histories of the period or education. New perspectives on both the Rump and key Commonwealth issues, including the ministry and propagation, emerge as a result.

The long nineteenth century witnessed both the entrance of "international" into the modern political vocabulary, and the rise of expert-centred international practices and institutions. Historians of international relations have thus far not investigated the connection between these two developments. This thesis engages the topic by asking: how should we make sense of this coevolution? It conceptualises the simultaneous emergence of internationality and expert politics as a case of domain differentiation: the articulation of the distinctiveness of a sphere of political action as a mode of authorisation. Multiple such articulations coexist and potentially conflict-domain differentiation is messy, inchoate, and contested. Yet rather than advance a causal-predictive claim about why experts emerged as central actors of international order, the thesis examines the indeterminate processes by which people with projects constructed a technocratic international with authorising effects. It adds a methodological argument for studying differentiators. Combining intellectual history with historical sociology, the thesis shows how by the mid-nineteenth century new elite actors were elevated to technical expert status to gain international authority. To do so, they articulated the international as a domain of impartiality, where scientific and technical experts should have special authority. This claim also was an attempt to shield their projects from political capture and contestation. A technocratic worldview gave them the confidence to first undertake large-scale engineering works across borders, and then worry about implications, from extraterritoriality to dispossession and informal empire, later. This double move-grasp for authority and deflection of contestation-was the chief innovation of the "world from nowhere." This was, as case studies based on archival research show, naturalised at the first World Fairs in London and Paris; it was used to justify the making of the Suez canal and its attendant extraterritorial 'international zone'; and it spurred on the cable industry at the 1865 International Telegraph Conference. Saint-Simonians, industrial capitalists, and free-trade liberals all contributed to this endeavour. But this was not a triumphant history. For all their professed hopes for an expert-driven engine of peace, they ended up facilitating and providing the infrastructure for what they had sought to overcome: military-territorial power politics, aggressive nationalism, and renewed imperial expansion. Given its influence on modern international organisations, excavating this link between expert-driven impartiality and technocratic international interventions puts difficult questions about the legitimacy of international institutions into perspective.

This dissertation is a multifaceted investigation of Christian martyrdom in late medieval Armenia (between the years of 1378 - 1425), in the Lake Van region, particularly in the administrative centre of Ostan, historically known as the district of Ṙštunik', in the Vaspurakan region. The questions explore the occurrences of martyrdom, the historical accuracy and context of the martyr accounts, and their theological significance and implications. The thesis introduces, for the first time in the English translation, the writings, compilations, and lives of two eminent doctors of the church in the Armenian tradition: Grigor Cerenc' Xlat'ec'i (1349 - 1425) and Matt'ēos J̌ułayec'i (1349 - 1411). In the year 1393 the Armenian church leader, Catholicos Zak'aria II (1369 - 1393) - the region's most prominent Armenian ecclesiastic - was martyred in Ostan (Persian, Vuṣtān; modern Gevaş, Turkey), on the southeast shore of Lake Van, under the rule of the Kurdish 'amīr' 'Izz al-Dīn Shīr and the Persian 'dānišman qāḍī'. The details of Zak'aria's martyrdom are now primarily extant in an anonymous martyr text, composed soon after the event. The anonymous author of Zak'aria's martyr text (a highly skilled 'vardapet') prefaces the text with a rich discourse on the influences of good and evil on the persons who shape the narrative. He appeals to Scripture and the Armenian tradition to reframe and repurpose the historical event of Zak'aria's death for his Christian audience who were prone to conversion. The Introduction to the thesis discusses the 'status quaestionis' on the martyr text of Catholicos Zak'aria and Armenian martyrology, and questions of authorship more generally before focusing on the liturgical role and function of martyr texts in the Armenian Menologium. Part one of the thesis, consisting of three chapters, lays out the historical context and administrative developments in the Lake Van region since the demise of the Mongol Ilkhanate in 1335. By examining the political, social, and ecclesial backgrounds to the martyr text of Catholicos Zak'aria, the investigation highlights contention between Kurdish, Turkman, Armenian, and subsequent Mongol and Timurid dynasties up to Ottoman annexation in the sixteenth century. Chapter Three offers the background to the Catholicosate of Ałt'amar, its ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and the function of the Ałt'amar island as a purely Christian polity. Furthermore, it introduces Catholicoi Zak'aria I and Zak'aria II and their leadership in relation to the Muslim authorities in Ostan, and the catholicosate's interface with the administration of Islamic law in the wider region. Chapter Four studies the socio-economic, religious, and juridical, life of the community in an Islamic society and in Islamic courts, treating the region's integration in commercial networks and the position of the Armenian merchant and artisan elite in the urban landscape. The thesis makes an original contribution to late medieval Armenian ecclesiastical, political, and social histories by studying the manuscripts where the martyrdom of Catholicos Zak'aria II is found, and by situating this event within the ecclesial, interreligious, and socio-economic contexts based upon primary sources. Part two examines the theological meaning of Zak'aria's martyr text. Christian - Muslim dialogue dominates the focus of Chapter Five, 'Apologetics and Martyrdom', which introduces Matt'ēos 'vardapet' J̌ułayec'i and his apologetic text and brings it together with the martyr text of Catholicos Zak'aria. The apology is a response to the challenges posed by the local Muslims, initiated by the encounter with the Persian 'dānišman qāḍī' on the island of Ałt'amar. Matt'ēos' apology and the martyr acts of this period were generated and grounded in the same context and mutually reinforced one another to express shared principles and common themes through different genres. The chapter showed that Matt'ēos and the authors of the martyr texts used the defining force of the genres - of apologia and of martyr acts - to affirm and confirm their religious practices and beliefs, specific to their world. For the Armenian ecclesial community, the martyrs offered the archetypal response to challenging times. In the face of an attempt to establish external rule over their lives, they presented and preserved their faith and its praxis. Chapter Six, 'Martyrdom as Illumination', explores the Armenian theology of martyrdom through a close reading of the theological discourse and the scriptural exegesis of Catholicos Zak'aria's martyr text, highlighting the themes and the language of the seven-branched lampstand, light, and virtues, as they appeal to Scripture and tradition. The Christian encounter with Muslims and Islam and the Armeno-Latin dialogues in this period shape the broader context and the development of the themes of good and evil, light and illumination, and virtue and vices. This thesis highlights the idea that when the texts of this period, in the milieu of the vardapets of the Lake Van region, are brought together, a threefold understanding of martyrdom emerges: martyrdom understood as illumination, apologetic, and resemblance of Christ's light in the person of the martyr. The investigation further sheds light on relations between Christians and Muslims on the Armenian Plateau in the late medieval period. Juxtaposing the histories and the encounters of the Muslim polities in relation to the Armenian ecclesial authorities and the demography and governance in the Lake Van region, the thesis contributes to our understanding of Armenian Christian and Turkish and Kurdish Muslim relations, and the ways that Christians in Greater Armenia dealt with changes at this time in history.

My thesis examines the functions of visions of heavenly beings in Coptic hagiography and their relationship to the cult of saints in Egypt. I use six saints' hagiographical traditions as case studies: Kollouthos, Menas, Phoibammon of Preht, Merkourios, Viktor, son of Romanos, and James the Persian. My source base includes all the Coptic hagiographical texts in these saints' traditions which contain visions experienced by them prior to their deaths and/or visions of them appearing posthumously to laypeople. I am thus able to understand the functions of visions through the writers' choices in presenting them, and through that how they were perceived and utilised within the cult of saints. I achieve two aims. Firstly, I address the lack of attention that Coptic hagiography has received in both Late Antique and Byzantine Studies and Egyptology, showing that it contributes significantly to our understanding of the cult of saints. Secondly, I focus on visions because, where supernatural phenomena within hagiography have been studied, there has been an overwhelming emphasis on posthumous miracles, meaning that the functions of other phenomena have gone unexplored. The thesis begins with a close examination of my source base and the issues inherent in the creation, transmission, and historicity of hagiographies in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, I contextualise my source base using archaeological evidence of the cult of saints, demonstrating in detail what we can learn from these texts and how to negotiate the issues with them. Then, in Chapters 3 and 4, I perform narratological analysis of the visions experienced by martyr saints and by laypeople, comparing them to illustrate that saints were portrayed as idealised Christians and that laypeople were instructed through visions how to participate in the cult in order to be allowed access to the divine.

During the seventeenth century, it was commonplace for rebellious French elites who opposed the ministerial monopoly of power held by Richelieu and Mazarin to flee abroad in defiance of the monarchy. In recent years, there has been renewed historical interest in the exile of some of these figures, including Louis XIII's mother and brother, Marie de Médicis and Gaston d'Orléans, or the prince of the blood known as the Grand Condé. But such studies have tended to focus on individual figures or families, rather than drawing conclusions about the wider phenomenon of French noble exile. Surveys of disgrace in early modern France have primarily examined top-down formal banishment and viewed the years that aristocrats spent in foreign exile as little more than footnotes to their careers. By contrast, this thesis presents the first in-depth study of the political culture of French noble exile in seventeenth-century Europe. It argues that the mobility and foreign exile of nobles played a central role in challenging and constructing royal and ministerial authority in the years prior to Louis XIV's personal reign. French exiles became thoroughly entangled in European power politics as they sought support from rulers hostile to France such as the Pamphili and Chigi popes and the Habsburgs. The thesis takes a micro-historical approach centred around Cardinal de Retz, one of the leading *frondeurs* who rebelled against the French government during the 1650s. Although Retz has long been known for the literary quality of his memoirs, his near-decade in European exile (1654 to 1662) after the civil upheaval of the *Frondes* has been neglected by historians. But the information war that Retz led against the French government from abroad and his alliances with other exiles like Condé placed him at the heart of French and European ecclesiastical and political conflicts during the 1650s. Putting Retz's struggle for supremacy with Louis XIV and Mazarin in a longer context illuminates significant continuities in French political culture before and after the *Frondes*. Using the analytical framework of political mobility, the thesis argues that the movement of individuals and objects across borders was essential to French noble resistance to absolutist monarchy. Because politics was conducted along personal lines, exiles were granted asylum and forged allegiances with foreign officials and rulers through the circulation of esteem, credit, and affect. At the same time, measures taken by the Bourbon monarchy against its rebellious subjects outside the kingdom highlight the role of human movement - and efforts to control it - in making the seventeenth-century French state.