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ASD is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by impairments in social communication and interaction and restricted or repetitive patterns of behaviour. Early intervention is recommended to produce the best outcomes for children with ASD. Clinicians therefore use specific therapies that most effectively improve outcomes for children. An intervention that is widely used by teachers and therapists is role play. Role play is a form of pretend play which is widely used by educators and therapists, to improve a variety of skills in children with ASD, including social and communication skills and Theory of Mind (ToM). ToM is the ability to attribute mental state to others, or in other words, the ability to 'put yourself in someone else's shoes'. In recent years, digital interventions to support learning for children with ASD which use interactive game-based technology have been increasing. Augmented reality (AR) is one such technology that is beginning to show promising results. AR is an advanced technology, commonly using visual cues, that expands our world by superimposing digital content on top of reality. Several unique features of AR have been shown to support learning for children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). This study explores the design and creation of an innovative augmented reality pretend play intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), through a user centred design process (UCD), also known as human centred design. A conceptual system framework was presented for researchers to use to create digital pretend play interventions for children with ASD. The conceptual system framework consisted of user requirements, instructional guidelines, a system template as well as recommendations of suitable technologies. The conceptual system framework was used to design a prototype intervention for children with ASD, to improve Theory of Mind through an AR based role play (aka socio-dramatic play) activity. The intervention uses the unique affordances of AR, which allow the user to control a digital character using their own facial expressions to facilitate role play activities. The intervention progressed through a rapid prototyping process where user feedback was gained through UCD methods, including focus group and usability testing. The user centred design approach was then adopted to ascertain and validate the design of the application and the user requirements through two usability studies. The final design is an iPad based AR application using facial expression tracking to interact with the activity. The digital intervention is designed to be used by a child and a guiding adult as a tool to extend and encourage role play. The digital intervention activity is based on familiar characters set in the context of a story book from the Oxford Reading Tree scheme, however, any character-based story book or media could be used. The child uses this to "pretend to be" a character in the story and accurately present their character's emotions at different points in the narrative. The impact of the application on Theory of Mind and overall engagement was evaluated through two sets of case studies, with a total of eight children in two different schools in the North West of the UK. The results establish that an AR face driven interface supports the development of Theory of Mind in children with ASD. The study demonstrated strong evidence for improvement of Theory of Mind for the participants of the study. Engagement in the activity across all cases was very high. This work could lead to interesting future studies related to AR technologies for children with ASD as increased engagement could lead to improved learning and outcomes. The two contributions of this study are, firstly, the user requirements and conceptual system framework generated through a UCD approach which could be used by researchers in the design of digital pretend play interventions for children with ASD. Secondly, the creation of an AR intervention which shows strong support for the development of Theory of Mind for children with ASD. Future research and larger scale studies are recommended to validate the results across a wider group of children with ASD and to determine which subsets of children with ASD would benefit the most from this intervention. The intervention should be studied further for its potential to improve social conversation in children with ASD.

Over the years, a set of story-telling conventions has been established for Television (TV), between content creators and their audiences. These conventions typically involve the creation, and subsequent consumption, of 2-dimensional (2-D) imagery accompanied by sound, requiring limited, if any, interaction between the viewers and content. As consumer Augmented Reality (AR) devices become a commodity, researchers and broadcasters are investigating the ways in which AR can be used to enhance/transform a conventional TV viewing experience - a concept referred to as Augmented Reality Television (ARTV). However, the addition of AR to TV has the potential to disrupt the conventional TV viewing assumptions, since AR's key characteristics are arguably its ability to deliver interactive 3-dimensional (3-D) imagery that is registered to the physical space; a type of content that TV viewers are likely not used to consuming. This raises the question of how to create ARTV content? This thesis conceptualises ARTV as an emerging mass medium, where content creators use both AR and TV to tell their stories to their audiences. We start by providing a few preliminary working definitions (e.g., TV, AR, and ARTV), then systematically review prior research and identify six major themes and six prominent design dimensions (namely, abstraction, interaction, time, display, context, and editorial control). These design dimensions are then used as a basis to create an ARTV design space, from which we derive a cheat sheet to support practitioners. We subsequently evaluate the intelligibility of this cheat sheet, and its impact on conceptualising novel ARTV experiences, in a user study with n = 10 participants. Our findings indicate that the cheat sheet can be useful in conceptualising novel ARTV scenarios, and prompt a series of refinements to the design space and associated cheat sheet. Given the dominance of ARTV to enhance conventional TV viewing experiences that take place in the living room, we further develop this aspect with its own conceptual framework and classification. To demonstrate the applicability of our design space and conceptual framework, we explore two specific types of living room based ARTV experiences in two user studies. In the first, we add holograms to an existing nature documentary and invite n = 12 participants to watch a six-minute ARTV content - where TV content is presented on a physical TV display, and AR content is displayed on a Microsoft Hololens head-mounted display - in a user testing facility that is designed to look and feel like a conventional living room. Our findings suggest that the viewers are likely to find such an experience engaging. However, some may feel a degree of anxiety and a fear of missing parts of the content and underlying narrative. In the second study (n = 10), we use points on the display dimension of our design space to vary presentation of a lifelike programme-related hologram as part of a nature documentary show. We explore six points on the display dimension in the context of an ARTV experience where both the TV and the living room are virtual. We investigate the impact of the hologram's movement behaviour on the viewers. Our findings highlight the role of personal preferences and the perceived role of the hologram in the underlying narrative and TV content. Overall, the thesis highlights a need to carefully consider the impact of additional augmentations on the viewers. Furthermore, viewers should be given the ability to customise their ARTV experiences, based on personal preferences. Our contributions are the following: 1) a systematic literature review, highlighting six common themes of research in ARTV and six commonly used design dimensions; 2) creation and evaluation of a design space for ARTV and its subsequent refinement based on the evidence gathered from a user study; 3) a conceptual framework for ARTV experiences in the living room, identifying nine types of ARTV and highlighting areas for future research; 4) two user-studies investigating two types of ARTV, highlighting a need to accommodate personal preferences for ARTV content.

This portfolio of compositions uses novel biometrics from gestural interfaces called Myo armbands to compose five pieces of electroacoustic music within a continuum of spatial environments, ranging from the real to the virtual. The portfolio achieves this by processing biometric data from the Myo armbands within developed software (using Max 8), applying machine learning to such data (via Wekinator) and mapping predictive outputs to audiovisual materials across the spatial continuum. The results of this approach show how unique compositional affordances can be created when using biometrics within different spatial environments and how implementing machine learning methods can help to create such opportunities. The outcomes are presented via five composed portfolio works, three published papers within the scientific community, and numerous music performances navigating the overlapping areas of music composition and computer science. By using novel biometrics to compose music within a continuum of space, this interdisciplinary research topic contributes original knowledge to both the fields of music composition and computer science (human-computer interaction).

Dementia affects more than 850,000 people in the UK, and this figure continues to rise year on year. People living with dementia often have difficulties completing activities of daily living (ADLs), leading to a reliance on family or professional carers. However, assistive technology, such as task prompting tools, can support people living with dementia to maintain their independence and live at home for longer. Augmented Reality (AR) is an increasingly prevalent technology and has been used as a task prompting tool in industrial settings to support complex maintenance and assembly tasks. The use of AR for task assistance has also been identified as a promising area for development in Domestic AR. Despite the use of AR as a task prompting tool in industrial settings and the potential of AR in domestic settings, relatively little is known about the efficacy of augmentations for ADLs. The work in this thesis aims to provide an initial exploration into the use of AR as a task prompting tool to support people living with dementia to complete ADLs at home. Multiple stakeholders, including health professionals, a general adult population, older adults without cognitive impairment, and people living with dementia and their family carers, have been included to develop a holistic understanding of the use of AR in a domestic setting, based on four studies carried out for this project. The first study consisted of in-person interviews with professionals with experience of working with people living with dementia. The second study was a lab experiment with older adults to compare four AR visual prompting techniques to prompt five basic actions found in many ADLs. The third study involved the co-design of AR prompts in a kitchen context, and their evaluation with a general adult population using an online survey. The final study consisted of online interviews with people living with dementia and their family carers to explore the results of the previous three studies and how AR could be beneficial from the point of view of people with lived experience of dementia. The overall findings show that AR as a tool to support task prompting of domestic tasks was received positively by the participants of these studies. A combination of text, audio, and a ghosthand image demonstrating the action to carry out could be most beneficial for people with dementia, but AR prompts should be easily customisable to cater for different abilities, preferences, and personalities. Furthermore, early introduction of AR will be key for uptake when the technology has been developed further. The potential of domestic AR to improve the lives of people affected by dementia and those that support them with ADLs is considered as motivation for future work in this promising research area.

This thesis presents an analysis of the implementation of Spatial Augmented Reality (SAR) to support collaborative design. SAR is a class of Augmented Reality (AR), where the AR effect is independent from the viewer's perspective. This property should make SAR uniquely well suited to support collaborative design sessions as it allows multiple participants to simultaneously view the same AR enhanced models concurrently. However, the adoption of SAR in the field of design remains limited. Thus, there is a knowledge gap that surrounds SAR, due to the novelty of the technology, and how its implementation can be configured to better support design. The aim of this research is therefore to: "Investigate SAR Systems' Characteristics and Features and how these Affect the Efficacy of Co-Design Sessions". A review of the literature surrounding collaborative design is provided to highlight evidence that enhanced collaboration during design sessions results in improved outcomes. Thereafter AR, and SAR in particular, are analysed to provide a basis for the continued investigation of SAR as a valid tool to support co-design sessions. In addition to the review, the state-of-the-art in implementing SAR in design and collaborative design is presented and discussed to frame the subsequent research conducted as part of this PhD. Moreover, literature is provided covering the metrics that will be used to analyse SAR supported co-design sessions. The methodology implemented throughout this thesis was one of empirical research conducted through a number of experimental studies aimed at evaluating the impact of SAR on co-design sessions. The experimental nature of this research thus required the development of an SAR platform to be used during experimental testing. The platform was developed iteratively and improved on the basis of feedback received from experiments. These experiments focused on three main areas: 1. The impact of SAR on co-design sessions as a whole. These experiments aid in understanding the impact that SAR has on the overall design session, focusing primarily on the design outcomes. 2. The analysis of specific characteristics and features of SAR and their impact on design outcomes. Experiments used to analyse the impact of specific elements that are innate to SAR to evaluate their individual impact on SAR supported design sessions. 3.Experiments and data collection aimed at gathering industry feedback. Used to understand the industry perspective to allow for the optimization of SAR to cater to the needs of industry and ultimately allow for its wider adoption. The results highlighted the viability of SAR as a tool to support collaborative design sessions. However, the studies also identified a number of areas for improvement in the implementation of SAR. The thesis concludes with a summary of thirty-two findings, condensing them into two lists of recommendations. One of these lists for technical improvements and one for features and affordances, aimed at assisting future researchers wishing to develop improved SAR platforms for co-design.

Vision loss is rarely absolute; most people referred to as blind have some form of residual vision. This residual vision can create a confusing view of the world. In this thesis, I explore how a camera system and a wearable display can augment an image of the word to improve its visibility and understanding to a visually impaired wearer. I focus on two crucial parts of life; recognising faces and reading. In the first part of this thesis, I design and validate a new face perception test to assess different image enhancement forms. I used this new test to measure the impact of image enhancement on a visually impaired population (n=64). The results found that approximately 40% of participants showed a significant improvement in test scores. Performance was related to reading acuity and lower spatial frequency loss. I then develop and integrate a complete real-time image processing solution for face perception enhancement with an augmented reality display, demonstrating a practical application of the image enhancements. The second part of this thesis's focus is reading. I compare paper-based reading performance against reading with a virtual reality (VR) display with a visually impaired population (n=53). I further assess the impact of different colours on reading with the VR display. The results found no difference in reading performance, comparing VR to paper- based. The colour of text and background had a significant effect, with 75% of participants having a preferred colour combination. A participant with a higher overall magnitude of colour vision loss is more likely to benefit from white text on a black background than black text on a yellow background. Augmenting an individual's residual vision can improve the quality of information they receive about the visual world. While not universal, this improvement has the potential to enhance a visually impaired person's quality of life significantly.

This study aims to investigate the effects of augmented reality activities in both traditional and flipped learning method classroom environments and compare the efficacy of these activities in the context of English phrasal verbs. For this purpose, the study was carried out within the scope of a college of foreign language English language preparation course, and the students' academic achievements, motivation and use of learning strategies were examined. In addition, the opinions of the course lecturer and students on augmented reality, augmented reality activity experiences, and expectations of the future of augmented reality were all examined within the scope of the research. A mixed-method approach was used with a quasi-experimental research design in the study, which includes a pre-test, a post-test, and a control group. The research study group consists of 61 students from the College of Foreign Languages' English preparatory course. The research was carried out within the English language preparatory course scope in the context of phrasal verbs in the fall semester of the 2019-2020 academic year. There were two experimental research groups, one of which followed the traditional classroom instruction plan, and the other followed the flipped learning method instruction plan. The control group followed the standard curriculum, using existing classroom technology. Both experimental research groups performed the same augmented reality activities throughout the research process. Descriptive statistics, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), repeated measure variance analysis, and the Kruskal-Wallis test were all used to analyse the study's quantitative data. In addition, descriptive analysis was performed on the qualitative data. As shown by the study results, the students' academic achievement scores in the experimental groups increased more than the control group students, who only followed the curriculum. However, at the end of the experimental process, it was concluded that there were no significant differences between the students' pre-test and post-test motivational belief and learning strategy scores. Furthermore, when the findings obtained from the semi-structured interviews were examined, the course lecturer and students from the experimental research groups generally stated that augmented reality activities could increase lesson success and motivation. Lastly, several suggestions were made based on the results of the study.

It is widely claimed that creativity is becoming increasingly important as Artificial Intelligence takes over more and more administrative roles. According to the OECD, many employers now consider creativity a key skill for success in the workplace and this has been highlighted in recent OECD papers focusing on key competencies of 2030. With advancements of new technologies such as augmented reality (AR), new technological affordances have the capabilities of supporting collaborative creative-processes in new and exciting ways. It is believed that no prior research has focused on AR and teaching for creativity - this research aims to do just that. This thesis employs a design-based research methodology, aiming to understand how a 3D AR intervention can be designed, tested and evaluated to support collaborative creativity in an art and design context at lower secondary school level. Relevant literature pertaining to creativity is reviewed and a multi-level conceptualisation of creativity that encompasses individual and group-level processes is proposed as a way to guide the research. A review of the field of AR for educational purposes is also conducted and findings suggest that a) more research is necessary in the field of art and design and b) the field lacks appropriate application of methods that identify the processes underpinning observed outcomes, such as increased motivation and academic performance. Both of these limitations are aimed to be addressed by this study through the development and documentation of an open-ended AR 3D modelling creativity task. Conjecture mapping is used as a method to outline how specific AR affordances relating to the application of interest (Grib) lead to hypothetical learning trajectories derived from theory. These are developed over three iterative cycles of testing and refinement that included 84 participants in Cycle 1, 8 of the same participants in Cycle 2, and 11 of the same participants in Cycle 3. Participants were aged 12- 14 years and from a secondary school based in Gibraltar. Data were collected from video and audio recordings of group interactions, as well as pre and post- questionnaires pertaining to various psychological factors relevant to creativity. A sociocultural perspective is taken for the analysis of group interactions and a dialogic framework of creativity that includes nonverbal interactions is used in an attempt to uncover a holistic understanding of all modes of communication. Epistemic Network Analysis (ENA) and measures of factors such as motivation, risk- taking and creative self-concept beliefs are used in an effort to uncover relationships between constructs in more detail. Analysis of the multimodal data revealed that the intervention design - which included the AR application 'Grib' - effectively helped students to engage in important individual and group creativity- relevant processes like divergent thinking, convergent thinking, intrinsic motivation and social cohesiveness. Several key affordances of the Grib application were identified as helping students engage in these processes and included, textual layering, sketch-to-3D, collaborative functonality and inspection of objects in 3D. Teaching practices identified as supporting students' creativity-relevant processes included time management, encouragement/reinforcement, reflection of the process, and social cohesion. Based on empirical findings from the study, design principles aimed at practitioners, researchers and designers seeking to support collaborative creative thinking in lower secondary school students are proposed. The study also contributed to a more holistic understanding of creativity by proposing a conceptual framework that drew on and extended numerous models of creativity. It offers a more micro understanding of specific factors that may be responsible for individual and group processes during creative stages. Practical design principles for future practitioners and researchers are also proposed. The above contributions are anticipated to be of practical and theoretical significance to those interested in understanding how individual and group processes might be assembled during similar creative tasks.

Augmented Reality (AR) technology facilitates the learning of 3D geometry because it allows students to easily manipulate 3D geometric shapes. Besides, gamification can further enhance the potential of AR technology as an educational tool by increasing user engagement. However, some methodological limitations were identified in the existing work on this specific topic. First, one of the major drawbacks was the lack of control groups for evaluating the effect of learning geometry with the conventional teaching methods as compared to that of the AR-based approaches. Second, the AR application assessment focused on learning outcomes, neglecting the user experience aspect. Therefore, the main research question of this PhD research project was to explore to what extent AR-based applications with gamification could make learning 3D geometry more effective and engaging for students as compared with the traditional 2D approach. To address this question, two empirical studies were conducted. In Study 1, an AR application for learning cross-sectional shapes and variables in 3D geometry was developed. The AR-based approach was compared with the traditional chalk-and-board one by involving sixty 12-16 year-olds from two schools in Thailand. In Study 2, how certain gamification elements - Badges, Points and Timer - influenced the motivational effect of the AR application in the learning of 3D geometric shapes was examined. It involved 150 students of 12-16 years old. A motivation questionnaire for measuring Interest, Confidence and Intention to Use level was constructed. Results indicated that the AR classes showed significantly stronger learning effects than the traditional ones, especially for more complex geometric concepts. However, there were no statistically significant differences in the motivational effect between the gamified and non-gamified AR applications, and Points had a stronger learning effect than Badges or Timer. One implication for designing gamified AR educational applications is that time pressure seems an inappropriate gamification element.

Real-time solutions to reducing the gap between virtual and physical worlds for photorealistic interactive Augmented Reality (AR) are presented. First, a method of texture deformation with image inpainting, provides a proof of concept to convincingly re-animate fixed physical objects through digital displays with seamless visual appearance. This, in combination with novel methods for image-based retargeting of real shadows to deformed virtual poses and environment illumination estimation using in conspicuous flat Fresnel lenses, brings real-world props to life in compelling, practical ways. Live AR animation capability provides the key basis for interactive facial performance capture driven deformation of real-world physical facial props. Therefore, Intermediated Reality (IR) is enabled; a tele-present AR framework that drives mediated communication and collaboration for multiple users through the remote possession of toys brought to life. This IR framework provides the foundation of prototype applications in physical avatar chat communication, stop-motion animation movie production, and immersive video games. Specifically, a new approach to reduce the number of physical configurations needed for a stop-motion animation movie by generating the in-between frames digitally in AR is demonstrated. AR-generated frames preserve its natural appearance and achieve smooth transitions between real-world keyframes and digitally generated in-betweens. Finally, the methods integrate across the entire Reality-Virtuality Continuum to target new game experiences called Multi-Reality games. This gaming experience makes an evolutionary step toward the convergence of real and virtual game characters for visceral digital experiences.

Augmented reality (AR) is the enhancement of our perception of the world around us. It promises the ability to simultaneously interact with a virtual environment and real objects, providing an intuitive method to interact with data. However, AR displays must be lightweight and compact, and be able to display bright, high-resolution 3D images. Current AR displays are limited by bulky-form factors with a limited field of view (FOV), and the inability to display high quality 3D images without introducing side effects such as nausea and eyestrain. In the first part of this thesis an afocal Maxwellian display is analysed and modelled, the small eyebox limitation examined and a solution proposed. A prototype head mounted display unit was constructed as a demonstration. The display performance was analysed objectively and subjectively, and found to perform well over a wide accommodation range. However, the system is mechanically complicated to provide for a large IPD demographic, and the implementation of the eyebox expansion is too limited. An alternative curved reflector system was proposed to reduce weight, increase FOV, and increase the eyebox. The final part of this research examines waveguides as an AR display technology. The limitations of current systems are evaluated, and a novel switchable waveguide architecture proposed where light can be selectively directed towards the eye to form an image time sequentially. This enables higher quality images, with a wider FOV and increased efficiency, from a more transparent waveguide. A liquid crystal diffraction grating is developed as a switching element with a simulated diffraction efficiency of 20% and a geometry optimised for easy industrial manufacture. The possibility for such a system to include an integrated lens function is also considered, and an 80° FOV design presented.

The central hypothesis of this thesis is that probabilistic user interface design provides an effective methodology for delivering productive and enjoyable applications in virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). This investigation is timely given the recent emergence of mass-market virtual and augmented reality head-mounted displays and growing demand for tailored applications and content. The design guidance for building compelling and productive applications for these environments is, however, currently lagging the pace at which the underlying technology is maturing. This is problematic given important differences between designing conventional 2D interfaces and interactions and their embodied 3D counterparts. This dissertation investigates probabilistic user interface design as a method for solving many of the novel challenges encountered when developing applications for VR and AR. Probabilistic user interface design seeks to model the uncertain events in a system and identify, implement and validate strategies that drive improved system performance. This thesis addresses four research questions by applying a probabilistic treatment in four distinct but closely related case studies. These four case studies are selected to illustrate the flexibility and unique benefits offered by this method. Research Question 1 asks how the probabilistic qualities of an interface can be determined and how this can inform design. This question is investigated in the context of text entry in VR with a probabilistic characterisation performed on two fundamental design choices. Research Question 2 relates to the challenge of adapting AR applications to deployment contexts not knowable at design time. A study in which crowdworkers are employed to build a probabilistic understanding of the requirements for contextually adaptive AR answers this question. The text entry theme is revisited in answering Research Questions 3 which asks how high levels of input noise can be mitigated through inference. A probabilistic text entry method specifically tailored for use in AR is implemented and evaluated. Finally, Research Question 4 asks how the high dimensional design space in AR and VR applications can be efficiently explored to support ideal design choices. Interface refinement through probabilistic optimisation and crowdsourcing is shown to be highly efficient and effective for this purpose. A probabilistic treatment in the design process has many potential benefits, principle among which is increased robustness to circumstances unanticipated at design time. This thesis contributes to the toolset and guidance available to designers and supports the development of next generation user interfaces specifically tailored to virtual and augmented reality.

Technicians' performance is a major driver in maintenance and each process can be prone to time and quality variances as well as errors due to factors such as experience, complexity and environment. Augmented Reality (AR) is an emerging technology that has been applied in a wide variety of disciplines and has been demonstrated to have a role with improving efficiency, effectiveness and decision-making within industrial maintenance. AR has not reached its full potential yet and its implementation in Industry is slowed down by three main limitations: hardware restricted capabilities, object recognition robustness and contents-related issues. This PhD project focuses on easing the implementation of AR by overcoming the AR technology selection challenges and the AR contents-related issues. In order to reach the aim, the student has provided three main contributions to knowledge: 1) a process to select AR technology for maintenance (IPSAR), 2) a method for creating AR step-by-step procedures (FARP) and 3) a method for providing remote assistance (ARRA). FARP and ARRA methods have been developed and tested. The first allows recording procedures in an ad-hoc designed "AR-format" and is able to show "step-by-step" procedures. It aims to support deskilling the maintenance process and reducing the error rate by simplifying the delivery of maintenance with efficient and effective guidance. The second overcomes current remote video-call assistance limitations by improving spatial referencing. ARRA module allows to provide AR-assistance by overlaying virtual objects on the real environment of a remote maintainer. The methods proposed by the student could boost the implementation of AR and open the doors for a bright future in which AR supports technicians thus reducing operational costs and training and improving human performances.

We have explored applications of Augmented Reality (AR) for external beam radiotherapy to assist with treatment planning, patient education, and treatment delivery. We created an AR development framework for applications in radiotherapy (RADiotherapy Augmented Reality, RAD-AR) for AR ready consumer electronics such as tablet computers and head mounted devices (HMD). We implemented in RAD-AR three tools to assist radiotherapy practitioners with: treatment plans evaluation, patient pre-treatment information/education, and treatment delivery. We estimated accuracy and precision of the patient setup tool and the underlying self-tracking technology, and fidelity of AR content geometric representation, on the Apple iPad tablet computer and the Microsoft HoloLens HMD. Results showed that the technology could already be applied for detection of large treatment setup errors, and could become applicable to other aspects of treatment delivery subject to technological improvements that can be expected in the near future. We performed user feedback studies of the patient education and the plan evaluation tools. Results indicated an overall positive user evaluation of AR technology compared to conventional tools for the radiotherapy elements implemented. We conclude that AR will become a useful tool in radiotherapy bringing real benefits for both clinicians and patients, contributing to successful treatment outcomes.

This thesis presents a real-time automated building progress monitoring solution for indoor environments using a mobile device. Such a system could prompt accurate and timely assessment of work progress that would allow managers to make adjustments and minimise both time and cost overrun when deviations from the schedule occur. Although many researchers have proposed approaches for progress monitoring in outdoor scenes, these cannot perform in real-time and shift into the complex interior environment. Research efforts for indoor environments are not fully automated and lead to errors in more complex scenes. Systems based on mobile devices could potentially enhance the inspection process and reduce the required time by allowing the inspector to acquire progress data by simply walking around the site. The main challenge of these systems is the tracking of the pose of the camera to achieve accurate alignment between the 3D design model and the real-world scene. Methods for estimating the user’s pose rely on a) tags on each target of interest, which require additional time and cost for installation and maintenance; b) pre-selected user locations, which restricts the user to those locations only; or c) GPS on the augmented reality headset, which only applies to outdoor inspections. Additionally, current mobile-based inspection systems do not perform any comparison between the captured as-built and the as-planned data. In this research, different marker-less Augmented Reality (AR) potential methods were implemented and tested for finding the most robust tracking solution. The Microsoft HoloLens was found to be the top performer for tracking the user’s pose and for overall user-experience. Next, a semi-automated method was developed for initially registering the 3D model to the real environment by exploiting information from detected floor and wall surfaces. Results showed that this method reduces the time of the initial registration by 58%. Having the 3D model aligned to the real environment and knowing the pose of the camera at every moment, an automated method was developed that exploits the captured as-built surface mesh data from the mobile device, compares it against the 3D design model and identifies in real-time whether an object has been built according to plan. Different parameters were tested for finding the optimum combination based on the current quality of mesh data. If quality of mesh data changes, then new parameters should be explored. Finally, the proposed solution was tested in real site conditions resulting in 76.6% precision, 100.0% recall, and 83.5% accuracy.

Augmented Reality (AR) is a recent technology that allows a seamless composition between virtual objects and the real world. This practice-based research uses the affordances of AR to design an AR textbook for collaborative learning experience. It identifies the key concepts of children s AR textbooks for the designing and evaluation of collaborative learning experiences. These concepts were used to develop a conceptual framework for the AR textbook that considers collaborative experience, learning and usability. Informed by these concepts, the research also has identified the design features which are unique to AR affordances which can be integrated in the school textbooks to develop a collaborative AR textbook for primary school children. The research follows a participatory design approach to involve the users of the AR textbook in the design process. The researcher has conducted three co-design studies involving primary school children and adults using cooperative inquiry techniques. The first study uses low-tech prototyping to find the overall direction of designing the AR textbook. After the development of the first AR textbook prototype, two formative evaluations have been conducted using cooperative inquiry critiquing, and layered elaboration techniques. Throughout these studies, a conceptual framework has been developed namely, Experience, Learn and Use (ELU) for the designing and evaluation of children s AR textbooks for collaborative learning experience. This framework is based on the adaption of Janet Read s Play, Learn, Use (PLU) model that defines children s relationships with the interactive technologies. The research proposes the ELU framework as a useful classification framework in the evaluation process, which informs the design features of the AR textbook which are related to the concepts of collaborative experience, learning and usability. The practical component of the thesis proposes a sample of an AR textbook that is integrated in the regular school curriculum. It demonstrates the design features which can be implemented in other textbooks to support collaborative learning experiences for primary school children. The documentation of the co-design process provides a practical framework for co-designing an AR textbook with children, as well as an evidence of using the ELU framework in practice. 4 This research also contributes in bridging the gap between AR and Child-Computer Interaction (CCI) communities, through the use of common CCI methods in the AR development. This research has resulted in key design principles which contribute original knowledge to the literature of the AR for children s education considering the CCI perspective. These important principles are informed by the collaborative experiences, learning and usability aspects that establish a framework for the design and evaluation of collaborative AR textbook for children. The eight identified principles by this research are, Joint Textbooks, Personalised AR Experience, Interactive AR Book, Communication-Based Learning, Rewarding AR feedback, Audio AR Textbook, Intuitive AR Markers, and Mutual AR Display. The research introduces the definition for each of the concepts and a demonstration of the related design features in the outcome of the AR textbook prototype.

Double Vision: A practice- led investigation of art and differential perception is a series of five interrelated practice-led research studies into artistic expression controlling perceptual experiences between audiences of varying visual acuities. Significant refinements  occurred between the first and second, and second and third studies. The last four studies were conducted with the aim of understanding vision’s influence on perception. Double Vision’s lead methodological approach was artistic practice. Other methods were employed according to the needs of that practice. They included iteration, collaboration, exhibition and testing. The research questions of Double Vision were refined in response to the results of artistic practice. That evolution resulted in two interrelated questions: Can artwork be intentionally created to be experienced differently dependent on one’s visual abilities? and If so, can those experiences be shared? A further question, ‘Can an analogy to colour deficient vision be created that engages both those with colour vision deficiency and the typically sighted?’, concludes the investigations. Artwork was realized through printmaking, animation and multimedia formats. Its context and content derived from many forms, notably the Ishihara Test for Colour Deficiency, writings of William Blake, contemporary music and philosophy. Augmented reality was employed to facilitate the translation of visual perceptions between targeted audiences. A number of exhibitions were held exploring these themes.

Alternate realities have fascinated mankind since early prehistory and with the advent of the computer and the smartphone we have seen the rise of many different categories of alternate reality that seek to augment, diminish, mix with or ultimately replace our familiar real world in order to expand our capabilities and our understanding. This thesis presents parallel reality as a new category of alternate reality which further addresses the vacancy problem that manifests in many previous alternate reality experiences. Parallel reality describes systems comprising two environments that the user may freely switch between, one real and the other virtual, both complete unto themselves. Parallel reality is framed within the larger ecosystem of previously explored alternate realities through a thorough review of existing categorisation techniques and taxonomies, leading to the introduction of the combined Milgram/Waterworth model and an extended definition of the vacancy problem for better visualising experience in alternate reality systems. Investigation into whether an existing state of the art alternate reality modality (Situated Simulations) could allow for parallel reality investigation via the Virtual Time Windows project was followed by the development of a bespoke parallel reality platform called Mirrorshades, which combined the modern virtual reality hardware of the Oculus Rift with the novel indoor positioning system of IndoorAtlas. Users were thereby granted the ability to walk through their real environment and to at any point switch their view to the equivalent vantage point within an immersive virtual environment. The benefits that such a system provides by granting users the ability to mitigate the effects of the extended vacancy problem and explore parallel real and virtual environments in tandem was experimentally shown through application to a use case within the realm of cultural heritage at a 15th century chapel. Evaluation of these user studies lead to the establishment of a number of best practice recommendations for future parallel reality endeavours.

Learning is one of the most interactive processes that humans practice. The level of interaction between the instructor and his or her audience has the greatest effect on the output of the learning process. Recent years have witnessed the introduction of e-learning (electronic learning), which was then followed by m-learning (mobile learning). While researchers have studied e-learning and m-learning to devise a framework that can be followed to provide the best possible output of the learning process, m-learning is still being studied in the shadow of e-learning. Such an approach might be valid to a limited extent, since both aims to provide educational material over electronic channels. However, m-learning has more space for user interaction because of the nature of the devices and their capabilities. The objective of this work is to devise a framework that utilises augmented reality and context awareness in m-learning systems to increase their level of interaction and, hence, their usability. The proposed framework was implemented and deployed over an iPhone device. The implementation focused on a specific course. Its material represented the use of augmented reality and the flow of the material utilised context awareness. Furthermore, a software prototype application for smart phones, to assess usability issues of m-learning applications, was designed and implemented. This prototype application was developed using the Java language and the Android software development kit, so that the recommended guidelines of the proposed framework were maintained. A questionnaire survey was conducted at the University, with approximately twenty-four undergraduate computer science students. Twenty-four identical smart phones were used to evaluate the developed prototype, in terms of ease of use, ease of navigating the application content, user satisfaction, attractiveness and learnability. Several validation tests were conducted on the proposed augmented reality m-learning verses m-learning. Generally, the respondents rated m-learning with augmented reality as superior to m-learning alone.

The creation of an effective construction schedule is fundamental to the successful completion of a construction project. Effectively communicating the temporal and spatial details of this schedule are vital, however current planning approaches often lead to multiple or misinterpretations of the schedule throughout the planning team. Four Dimensional Computer Aided Design (4D CAD) has emerged over the last twenty years as an effective tool during construction project planning. In recent years Building Information Modelling (BIM) has emerged as a valuable approach to construction informatics throughout the whole lifecycle of a building. Additionally, emerging trends in location-aware and wearable computing provide a future potential for untethered, contextual visualisation and data delivery away from the office. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel computer-based approach, to facilitate on-site 4D construction planning through interaction with a 3D construction model and corresponding building information data in outdoor Augmented Reality (AR). Based on a wide ranging literature review, a conceptual framework was put forward to represent software development requirements to support the sequencing of construction tasks in AR. Based on this framework, an approach was developed that represented the main processes required to plan a construction sequence using an onsite model based 4D methodology. Using this proposed approach, a prototype software tool was developed, 4DAR. The implemented tool facilitated the mapping of elements within an interactive 3D model with corresponding BIM data objects to provide an interface for two way communication with the underlying Industry Foundation Class (IFC) data model. Positioning data from RTK-GPS and an electronic compass enabled the geo-located 3D model to be registered in world coordinates and visualised using a head mounted display fitted with a ii forward facing video camera. The scheduling of construction tasks was achieved using a novel interactive technique that negated the need for a previous construction schedule to be input into the system. The resulting 4D simulation can be viewed at any time during the scheduling process, facilitating an iterative approach to project planning to be adopted. Furthermore, employing the IFC file as a central read/write repository for schedule data reduces the amount of disparate documentation and centralises the storage of schedule information, while improving communication and facilitating collaborative working practices within a project planning team. Post graduate students and construction professionals evaluated the implemented prototype tool to test its usefulness for construction planning requirements. It emerged from the evaluation sessions that the implemented tool had achieved the essential requirements highlighted in the conceptual framework and proposed approach. Furthermore, the evaluators expressed that the implemented software and proposed novel approach to construction planning had potential to assist with the planning process for both experienced and inexperienced construction planners. The following contributions to knowledge have been made by this study in the areas of 4D CAD, construction applications of augmented reality and Building Information Modelling; · 4D Construction Planning in Outdoor Augmented Reality (AR) · The development of a novel 4D planning approach through decomposition · The deployment of Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) in AR · Leveraging IFC files for centralised data management within real time planning and visualisation environment.

With the advent of ever smaller and more powerful portable computing devices, and ever smaller cameras, wearable computing is becoming more feasible. The ever increasing numbers of augmented reality applications are allowing users to view additional data about their world overlaid on their world using portable computing devices. The main aim of this research is to enable a user of a wearable robot to explore large environments automatically viewing augmented reality at locations and on objects of interest. To implement this research a wearable visual robotic assistant is designed and constructed. Evaluation of the different technologies results in a final design that combines a shoulder mounted self stabilizing active camera, and a hand held magic lens into a single portable system. To enable the wearable assistant to locate known objects, a system is designed that combines an established method for appearance-based recognition with one for simultaneous localization and mapping using a single camera. As well as identifying planar objects, the objects are located relative to the camera in 3D by computing the image-to-database homography. The 3D positions of the objects are then used as additional measurements in the SLAM process, which routinely uses other point features to acquire and maintain a map of the surroundings, irrespective of whether objects are present or not. The monocular SLAM system is then replaced with a new method for building maps and tracking. Instead of tracking and mapping in a linear frame-rate driven manner, this adopted method separates the mapping from the tracking. This allows higher density maps to be constructed, and provides more robust tracking. The flexible framework provided by this method is extended to support multiple independent cameras, and multiple independent maps, allowing the user of the wearable two-camera robot to escape the confines of the desk top and explore arbitrarily sized environments. The final part of the work brings together the parallel tracking and multiple mapping system with the recognition and localization of planar objects from a database. The method is able to build multiple feature rich maps of the world and simultaneously recognize, reconstruct and localize objects within these maps. The object reconstruction process uses the spatially separated keyframes from the tracking and mapping processes to recognize and localize known objects in the world. These are then used for augmented reality overlays related to the objects.