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This thesis examines the first ten years of the campaign of political violence that was waged by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) during the Northern Ireland Troubles (c.1969-1998). The primary aim is to understand how and why the PIRA chose to apply violence, and the consequences of these decisions. What is significant about this thesis, is the volume and range of PIRA violence that has been disaggregated and assessed - fatal and non-fatal acts of violence; targeted assassinations that were planned and executed as intended; operations that were stillborn, off-target, or thwarted by the security forces; attacks that maimed or killed unintended targets; and acts that were never intended to and did not cause physical harm to others. The work uncovers a richer account of the relationship between PIRA agency, chance, and the character and consequences of PIRA violence than has hitherto been possible. The research has involved a detailed investigation of the PIRA's activity to establish how, when where and why the violence took different forms. The PIRA's operations have been examined in minute detail to identify and evaluate the significance of various characteristics that are apparent in each stage of the process: its design, execution, outcome, and reception. This has involved first, identifying why the PIRA selected certain targets and tactics, and the extent to which they perpetrated violence with accuracy and discrimination in each scenario. Second, the different outcomes that are produced - directly or indirectly - as a result of PIRA violence (including the material damage, deaths and injuries caused) and the relationship between these outcomes and the actions taken by the perpetrator(s), have been explored. Finally, the thesis considers how and why the armed struggle was perceived in disparate ways by others.

In the late Elizabethan and Jacobean period, monopolies emerged as a crucial tool of crown financial policy. In response, subjects petitioned crown, council, and parliament to lament the changes these grants wrought on their trades and livelihoods. This thesis will offer an analysis of anti-monopoly petitioning activity between 1590-1625. It will demonstrate the vibrancy and sophistication of petitioning in this often-overlooked period, whilst illuminating the important intersection between politics and economics at the turn of the seventeenth century. This economic issue politicised subjects, who turned to petitioning to lament the effects of this intrusive form of prerogative finance. They embraced the opportunities to approach parliament, council, monarch, and even new commissions charged with managing economic petitions. Subjects proved willing to draw on wider discourses in political culture and economic thought as bargaining strategies within petitions designed to further their own economic interests. This thesis will adopt a case study approach, focusing on the monopolisation of leather, starch, glass, and cloth. It will draw on a range of sources, predominantly manuscript, from such archives as the State Papers and individual livery companies. The role of London's livery and overseas trading companies both as petitioners, and as a source of concerted opposition themselves, will be explored throughout. In addition, the capacity for subjects to organise petitioning activity independently of the auspices of corporate organisation will be shown. By analysing often overlooked petitioning campaigns, the complex alliances between courtiers and artisans made possible in this era of monopolisation will also be illuminated. Through a focus on these anti-monopoly petitioning campaigns, this thesis will add to understandings of manuscript petitioning culture in the late Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, whilst demonstrating the importance of economic issues to the politics of the early modern public sphere.

This thesis brings multiple methodologies together to examine where we might find pleasure and sexual subjectivity for women in later medieval England. At once working to uncover the assumptions within historians' theoretical frames and lay new groundwork, in the Introduction I explore the semantic and theoretical challenges, and propose some new methods, focussing on pleasure as an operative term.

This thesis examines the impact of increased military duties on the social and political evolution of urban commoners of the Russian Northwest in the early 19th century. The impact of increased recruit and militia levies and billeting duty in the 1800s-1820s is examined in relation to the communes of three district capitals: Novaia Ladoga, Sofia-Tsarskoe Selo, and Gdov. The focus is on the practices, actions, and motivations of individuals, communes of merchants and meshchane, and town councils. These increased duties led to the modernization of social relationships and political culture. Increased conscription revealed the limits of the communal process of nomination for service: with the first mass militia levy announced in 1806, communes failed to supply enough soldiers on time. The government had therefore to revise the system of nomination. The practice of nomination for dissolute behaviour was put on a stable legal footing and family recruit groups were introduced, reducing conflict, delays, and disputes within communes. Local merchant elites were crucial to the performance of military duties: the richest families controlled the town council, organizing fundraising during the recruit and especially the militia levies of 1806-07 and 1812. The merchants themselves made additional contributions. But those in district towns were heavily impacted by the upheavals of war, the growth of taxation, and other financial demands: the local elites significantly contracted from 1807, and especially after 1812. Relationships between councils and the Chief of Police and Civil Governor were likewise crucial to the performance of military duties. Effective cooperation with urban police on the ground helped in the supply of recruits, money, and equipment during levies. The Governor played a role as mediator whenever disputes and conflicts arose between commoners and police or army officers, most of which were solved by negotiation: commoners and councils were not as powerless as often imagined. Following the war, there was a growing demand for the equalization of duties and tax burdens among commoners in the 1820s; dissatisfaction with officialdom grew, which manifested itself in cholera riots, e.g., in Staraia Rusa in 1831.

This thesis argues for a recentring of musicological narratives on the subject of 'Vienna 1900' and offers four case studies that examine the transformation of vernacular culture alongside the expansion of the city from 1870 to the outbreak of the First World War. I propose an alternative set of paradigms for understanding Vienna during this period by exploring musical life in the suburbs and the impact of urban planning on street music and noise. The main themes covered in my four chapters are: a study of sound and noise abatement campaigns in relation to political theatre and social crisis, moving from the voices of working-class communities to the musical experimentation of suburban enclaves; an extended biography of the Schrammelmusik phenomenon, its position on the threshold of two musical worlds, and its urban-rural networks that contributed to a blurring of boundaries between mythology and reality; an analysis of Wienerlied texts which provide sharply etched commentaries on metropolitan life at the edge of liberal bourgeois experience and their role in tracing the shifting subjectivities of suburban dwellers; and a portrait of clocks and barrel organs that channels the familiar image of the organ grinder through the idea of fractured temporalities, as revealed in different approaches to time synchronisation and urban rhythms. Throughout my four chapters, I emphasise the materiality of music-making at street level and the social fabric of suburban musical establishments. I aim to reposition narratives that stress fin-de-siècle Vienna as a place apart by adopting an expanded conception of centre and periphery relationships which reaches beyond the city and borderlands of neighbouring empires. I argue that by offering a more pluralistic notion of the vernacular, refracted through a study of acoustic and temporal environments, one can begin to understand more fully how the changing identities of Vienna's population were intimately connected with the accelerated reconfiguration of the city towards the end of the nineteenth century.

Military music was pervasive in Britain and Ireland during the French Wars but has received limited attention from historians. This thesis interprets martial music-making as a core military activity and an integral part of wider musical culture. A critical tool of communication and discipline, music sounded the alarm, aided recruitment, and governed soldiers' routines and bodily movements. Officers invested heavily in military bands, regarding them as social amenities, sources of prestige, and essential for maintaining soldiers' morale. Regiments competed and cooperated in a seller's market for musical labour, engaging knowledgeable civilian performers and training a mass of novice instrumentalists through a cogent instructional programme. Attention to music reveals the depth and reciprocity of interactions between the military and society. Regimental bands provided sought-after entertainment at myriad public events, staged free open-air concerts for socially diverse audiences, and amplified wartime expressions of patriotism. Military performers also promoted cultural dissemination and exchange, rehearsing eclectic repertoires and adopting melodies from other regiments, armies, and peoples. Military mobilisation palpably shaped nineteenth-century musical culture. Volunteer and militia bands established in wartime continued playing together for decades after Waterloo while discharged regimental instrumentalists actively contributed to provincial and colonial musical life as teachers, performers, and retailers. The expansion of military music-making also encouraged the post-war spread of amateur wind and brass bands, which were often led by old soldiers and modelled on regimental lines. Ingrained in popular culture after two decades of conflict, martial music was widely emulated by political reformers with the involvement of musically trained ex-servicemen. Military music, in sum, was an everyday and intrusive part of wartime life, a source of entertainment and opportunity, and a politically charged exponent of both patriotism and protest. The legacies of martial music-making, as this thesis argues, echoed far beyond the barrack gates.

This thesis explores the role of the parliamentary state in places of education during the period of the Rump Parliament (1649-53) by focusing on the committee for regulating the universities (CRU). Although there are many studies devoted to education and its reform during this period, the role of the state in this sphere is largely overlooked. This thesis addresses this oversight, demonstrating that the Commonwealth government and the regimes of the 1640s and 1650s more widely were important agents in educational matters and were deeply involved in places of learning. The Rump's priorities for schools and universities are analysed and it is shown that the government wished to work inside the traditional structure of educational institutions rather than to overhaul them. This thesis also offers a fresh approach to the Commonwealth government and period. Historians often examine the Rump through its legislation and events at Westminster which results in a depiction of the government's life as characterised by infrequent spasms of activity. The study below challenges this interpretation and argues that the regime ought to be analysed through the workings of its committees, like the CRU, and the implementation of its rule in institutional or local contexts. As is demonstrated, it is necessary to look at both the centre and the localities when discussing the Rump. This thesis thus focuses on both the members of government and those of educational establishments, examining the agency of the latter group and illustrating the widespread existence of cooperation and consensus in the period. To achieve its aims, this thesis adopts an archive-based approach and uses the records of numerous places of learning, including many not often included in histories of the period or education. New perspectives on both the Rump and key Commonwealth issues, including the ministry and propagation, emerge as a result.

The long nineteenth century witnessed both the entrance of "international" into the modern political vocabulary, and the rise of expert-centred international practices and institutions. Historians of international relations have thus far not investigated the connection between these two developments. This thesis engages the topic by asking: how should we make sense of this coevolution? It conceptualises the simultaneous emergence of internationality and expert politics as a case of domain differentiation: the articulation of the distinctiveness of a sphere of political action as a mode of authorisation. Multiple such articulations coexist and potentially conflict-domain differentiation is messy, inchoate, and contested. Yet rather than advance a causal-predictive claim about why experts emerged as central actors of international order, the thesis examines the indeterminate processes by which people with projects constructed a technocratic international with authorising effects. It adds a methodological argument for studying differentiators. Combining intellectual history with historical sociology, the thesis shows how by the mid-nineteenth century new elite actors were elevated to technical expert status to gain international authority. To do so, they articulated the international as a domain of impartiality, where scientific and technical experts should have special authority. This claim also was an attempt to shield their projects from political capture and contestation. A technocratic worldview gave them the confidence to first undertake large-scale engineering works across borders, and then worry about implications, from extraterritoriality to dispossession and informal empire, later. This double move-grasp for authority and deflection of contestation-was the chief innovation of the "world from nowhere." This was, as case studies based on archival research show, naturalised at the first World Fairs in London and Paris; it was used to justify the making of the Suez canal and its attendant extraterritorial 'international zone'; and it spurred on the cable industry at the 1865 International Telegraph Conference. Saint-Simonians, industrial capitalists, and free-trade liberals all contributed to this endeavour. But this was not a triumphant history. For all their professed hopes for an expert-driven engine of peace, they ended up facilitating and providing the infrastructure for what they had sought to overcome: military-territorial power politics, aggressive nationalism, and renewed imperial expansion. Given its influence on modern international organisations, excavating this link between expert-driven impartiality and technocratic international interventions puts difficult questions about the legitimacy of international institutions into perspective.

This dissertation is a multifaceted investigation of Christian martyrdom in late medieval Armenia (between the years of 1378 - 1425), in the Lake Van region, particularly in the administrative centre of Ostan, historically known as the district of Ṙštunik', in the Vaspurakan region. The questions explore the occurrences of martyrdom, the historical accuracy and context of the martyr accounts, and their theological significance and implications. The thesis introduces, for the first time in the English translation, the writings, compilations, and lives of two eminent doctors of the church in the Armenian tradition: Grigor Cerenc' Xlat'ec'i (1349 - 1425) and Matt'ēos J̌ułayec'i (1349 - 1411). In the year 1393 the Armenian church leader, Catholicos Zak'aria II (1369 - 1393) - the region's most prominent Armenian ecclesiastic - was martyred in Ostan (Persian, Vuṣtān; modern Gevaş, Turkey), on the southeast shore of Lake Van, under the rule of the Kurdish 'amīr' 'Izz al-Dīn Shīr and the Persian 'dānišman qāḍī'. The details of Zak'aria's martyrdom are now primarily extant in an anonymous martyr text, composed soon after the event. The anonymous author of Zak'aria's martyr text (a highly skilled 'vardapet') prefaces the text with a rich discourse on the influences of good and evil on the persons who shape the narrative. He appeals to Scripture and the Armenian tradition to reframe and repurpose the historical event of Zak'aria's death for his Christian audience who were prone to conversion. The Introduction to the thesis discusses the 'status quaestionis' on the martyr text of Catholicos Zak'aria and Armenian martyrology, and questions of authorship more generally before focusing on the liturgical role and function of martyr texts in the Armenian Menologium. Part one of the thesis, consisting of three chapters, lays out the historical context and administrative developments in the Lake Van region since the demise of the Mongol Ilkhanate in 1335. By examining the political, social, and ecclesial backgrounds to the martyr text of Catholicos Zak'aria, the investigation highlights contention between Kurdish, Turkman, Armenian, and subsequent Mongol and Timurid dynasties up to Ottoman annexation in the sixteenth century. Chapter Three offers the background to the Catholicosate of Ałt'amar, its ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and the function of the Ałt'amar island as a purely Christian polity. Furthermore, it introduces Catholicoi Zak'aria I and Zak'aria II and their leadership in relation to the Muslim authorities in Ostan, and the catholicosate's interface with the administration of Islamic law in the wider region. Chapter Four studies the socio-economic, religious, and juridical, life of the community in an Islamic society and in Islamic courts, treating the region's integration in commercial networks and the position of the Armenian merchant and artisan elite in the urban landscape. The thesis makes an original contribution to late medieval Armenian ecclesiastical, political, and social histories by studying the manuscripts where the martyrdom of Catholicos Zak'aria II is found, and by situating this event within the ecclesial, interreligious, and socio-economic contexts based upon primary sources. Part two examines the theological meaning of Zak'aria's martyr text. Christian - Muslim dialogue dominates the focus of Chapter Five, 'Apologetics and Martyrdom', which introduces Matt'ēos 'vardapet' J̌ułayec'i and his apologetic text and brings it together with the martyr text of Catholicos Zak'aria. The apology is a response to the challenges posed by the local Muslims, initiated by the encounter with the Persian 'dānišman qāḍī' on the island of Ałt'amar. Matt'ēos' apology and the martyr acts of this period were generated and grounded in the same context and mutually reinforced one another to express shared principles and common themes through different genres. The chapter showed that Matt'ēos and the authors of the martyr texts used the defining force of the genres - of apologia and of martyr acts - to affirm and confirm their religious practices and beliefs, specific to their world. For the Armenian ecclesial community, the martyrs offered the archetypal response to challenging times. In the face of an attempt to establish external rule over their lives, they presented and preserved their faith and its praxis. Chapter Six, 'Martyrdom as Illumination', explores the Armenian theology of martyrdom through a close reading of the theological discourse and the scriptural exegesis of Catholicos Zak'aria's martyr text, highlighting the themes and the language of the seven-branched lampstand, light, and virtues, as they appeal to Scripture and tradition. The Christian encounter with Muslims and Islam and the Armeno-Latin dialogues in this period shape the broader context and the development of the themes of good and evil, light and illumination, and virtue and vices. This thesis highlights the idea that when the texts of this period, in the milieu of the vardapets of the Lake Van region, are brought together, a threefold understanding of martyrdom emerges: martyrdom understood as illumination, apologetic, and resemblance of Christ's light in the person of the martyr. The investigation further sheds light on relations between Christians and Muslims on the Armenian Plateau in the late medieval period. Juxtaposing the histories and the encounters of the Muslim polities in relation to the Armenian ecclesial authorities and the demography and governance in the Lake Van region, the thesis contributes to our understanding of Armenian Christian and Turkish and Kurdish Muslim relations, and the ways that Christians in Greater Armenia dealt with changes at this time in history.

My thesis examines the functions of visions of heavenly beings in Coptic hagiography and their relationship to the cult of saints in Egypt. I use six saints' hagiographical traditions as case studies: Kollouthos, Menas, Phoibammon of Preht, Merkourios, Viktor, son of Romanos, and James the Persian. My source base includes all the Coptic hagiographical texts in these saints' traditions which contain visions experienced by them prior to their deaths and/or visions of them appearing posthumously to laypeople. I am thus able to understand the functions of visions through the writers' choices in presenting them, and through that how they were perceived and utilised within the cult of saints. I achieve two aims. Firstly, I address the lack of attention that Coptic hagiography has received in both Late Antique and Byzantine Studies and Egyptology, showing that it contributes significantly to our understanding of the cult of saints. Secondly, I focus on visions because, where supernatural phenomena within hagiography have been studied, there has been an overwhelming emphasis on posthumous miracles, meaning that the functions of other phenomena have gone unexplored. The thesis begins with a close examination of my source base and the issues inherent in the creation, transmission, and historicity of hagiographies in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, I contextualise my source base using archaeological evidence of the cult of saints, demonstrating in detail what we can learn from these texts and how to negotiate the issues with them. Then, in Chapters 3 and 4, I perform narratological analysis of the visions experienced by martyr saints and by laypeople, comparing them to illustrate that saints were portrayed as idealised Christians and that laypeople were instructed through visions how to participate in the cult in order to be allowed access to the divine.

This research brings together literary, visual, and artefactual collections associated with the HMS Beagle's second voyage (1831-1836) to explore how nature and culture from the Global South were collected, transported, and interpreted in Europe. Merging anthropology and natural history, I perform literary, art historical, and archaeological analyses to investigate the collecting of Indigenous people and nature, biocultural comparisons and the naturalisation of culture, visualities of the colonial gaze, methods for documenting and extracting nature, and the possessing of natural worlds. Dispersed across different repositories, colonial-era collections are often interpreted respective to a certain discipline or genre of material. Viewing 'Beagle' materials collectively - as multi-media biocultural compositions - this thesis traces the connections between art, science, and culture under empire. Manuscripts, art, tools, and ethnographic objects are viewed in tandem, interpreted across disciplines and situated within the context of the long nineteenth century. Positing that the 'Beagle' voyage occurred during a key transitional moment in British imperial history, this thesis finds that the expedition's ethnographic and scientific work built upon collecting and exhibitionary practices associated with Europe's early natural history institutions, herbariums, gardens, and zoos. Further, contemporaneous with the abolition of slavery and the burgeoning of natural resource commodification under industrialisation, the expedition collected materials and recorded observations that prompted a new approach towards understanding the world's diversity of life. Extracted as resources and knowledge, biological and cultural material from colonial voyages of 'discovery' were displayed in anthropological museums and world's fairs together for the benefit of the metropole. To replicate ephemeral fieldwork conditions for metropolitan viewers, representations typified non-Western peoples and environments as embodiments of 'nature' susceptible to extinction. In conclusion, I reflect on the legacy of nineteenth-century collecting in contemporary museum practice, asking how museums might address colonial histories of violence in attempting to possess, preserve, and recreate biocultural worlds.

"Pacific environmentalism" emerged as a regional ethic connecting Oceania and protecting Pacific peoples' ways of thinking and relating to the natural world. It combined a customary body of knowledge about Pacific ecologies shaped over centuries, with decolonial politics, international science, and regional principles. This thesis considers the place of Pacific environmentalism within Pacific societies and the global environmental movement from 1970-1995. It argues that Pacific people consolidated knowledge about their ocean and islands, specifically that they are interconnected, indigenous, and inviolable, and used this to further self-determination-first as part of a regional movement, and then to make global interventions. To account for Oceania's vast geographical distance and thematic diversity, while demonstrating the operation of a new environmental regionalism, the thesis is structured episodically around the origins and early work of the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), an intergovernmental regional organisation. After locating SPREP in Pacific responses to nuclear colonialism, insular laboratories, and preservationist national parks in the mid-1970s, the thesis shows how Pacific scientists, diplomats, community leaders and allies retooled environmental management for regional socio-ecologies. Research conducted regionally maintained Pacific people were an indivisible part of island systems, connected by the ocean into a shared, interdependent environment. Environmental regionalism through SPREP proceeded collectively, effectively mediating technocratic metropolitan influence by emphasising traditional knowledge and community-based management, while counteracting extractive mining, fishing and forestry. Advocacy on the issues of nuclear waste dumping and climate change turned self-determination into sovereignty, using United Nations forums to challenge neo-colonialism and dependency, establishing Pacific regimes of ocean governance and interregional associations of like-minded island regions. Pacific environmentalism prevented further ecological imperialism and the region's integration into globalised environmental management; its elaboration contributes an environmental dimension to Pacific histories of political regionalism and a regional critique of "global"-yet-Western histories of environmentalism.

This thesis examines the development of a hitherto overlooked yet thriving current of thought and culture in modern Japan between the 1860s and the 1920s, which manifested in such diverse realms as religion, gender, race, war, agriculture, and education. An important aspect of this intellectual trend was the rejection of the male God. Instead, God was reconceptualised as multi-gender, challenging the hierarchical ideologies of gender, race, class, and disability that underpinned Western modern civilisational discourse. This project links previously unconnected people, including farmers, thinkers, and educators, for the first time as part of significant cultural-intellectual phenomena in early twentieth-century Japan. A key figure of the phenomena was Arai Ōsui (1846-1922), a samurai-intellectual from Japan's civil-war-defeated North. People of different professions and social strata flocked to study Ōsui's anti-imperial teachings in the very apotheosis of state imperialism. Nevertheless, Ōsui has been forgotten in the historiography, predominantly narrated through the lens of the nation-state led by civil war victors and their views on civilisation and progress. Through the perspectives of Ōsui and his comrades, this thesis offers an alternative view of modern Japanese history outside of the state-centred ideological paradigm of Western modernity. I argue that the cooperative work of Ōsui and his Japanese comrades, along with their Russian, American, British, and Korean allies, led to the emergence of a competing conception of universal human progress. The concept that I term 'symbiotic modernity' encapsulates their efforts to realise a non-hierarchical and inclusive world by replacing the inequality of Western modernity with equality, nationality with transnationality, and the state-centric with people-centric. While the dominant narrative of modern Japanese history, centred on the victorious state side, began with Japan's Opening (Kaikoku) to the West and Western modernity, this thesis presents a different beginning and outcome of the opening, through Ōsui's quest for symbiotic modernity.

Despite recent attempts to reassess the culture wars of early Enlightenment England as conversations between educated individuals about pivotal and often technical matters, academics of the period continue to feature in narratives of intellectual change as the gatekeepers of a decrepit religious establishment. The famous contention of John Henry Newman that universities are at best locations for the 'diffusion and extension of knowledge' but not for its advancement thus lives on, and has only been heightened by the persistent supposition among historians that the eighteenth-century English universities 'surrendered their cultural leadership'. This thesis, however, presents an altogether new perspective on the relationship of Oxford and Cambridge to the wider intellectual life of the period, with a focus on the neglected polemical and scholarly writings of 'early career' scholars. During a period coloured by anti-institutional sentiments, young scholars in the universities worked tirelessly to defend the system of knowledge that underwrote the curricula of their institutions, and, indeed, academic authority at large. They also aspired to operate smoothly within, and ideally govern, a rapidly expanding vernacular 'public sphere', aware that their task of defending the Church of England depended upon them successfully doing so. In my account, the shortcoming of the eighteenth-century English universities in terms of the relative dearth of impartial 'research' publications was not a result of their being impervious to 'polite' society but rather of their obsessive and often very successful attempts to engage with it.

The political structure of early modern England was, definitively, patriarchal. And yet, women wielded direct authority on the local level in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at a scale not seen in the periods before or after. While historians have long recognised that early modern parishes occasionally elected female officers, this thesis is the first full-length study of female office-holding in the rural parish. As such, it reveals that we have underestimated the frequency of female nomination to parish office throughout this period, requiring a reevaluation of current historical knowledge on custom, state formation, gender relations and the nature of parish government. This thesis begins with a simple question: why were women chosen, and why were they chosen more often in some parishes than in others? By mapping female office-holding over time and space, we find that the nomination of women was firmly linked to specific local customs of election which privileged landholding. Examined intersectionally, instances of female nomination allow us to deepen our understanding of these electoral customs, why they were developed and the extent of their authority. First, we consider why householding and landholding might come before gender in considerations of eligibility for parish office, concluding that office-holding was a liability attached to the land, regardless of who held it. Property-based customs of election, it is argued, developed as a way of spreading financial risk among substantial tenements, which provided security to parish transactions. Finally, patterns of nomination and deputyship in the seventeenth century suggest that these customs were carefully preserved, even as they came to have less bearing on who carried out the duties of the office. Thus, the nomination of women to parish office in early modern England was, more than anything else, a byproduct of their neighbours' ongoing dedication to custom.

This thesis examines the reform of the British Civil Service and its impact on society by providing the first systematic exploration of developments in the Treasury department between 1847 and 1914. It covers some of the most significant changes in the modern history of the British state in terms of appointments, promotions, pensions, and the development of a new idea of profession in the Civil Service from youth to old age. It reveals the interconnections between the aristocracy and the professions over the nineteenth century, and the Treasury's key role in the professionalization of government administration. Existing scholarship on the Civil Service has provided the foundations of our understanding of reforms and public departments. However, few scholars have studied these processes from a social history perspective, exploring how reforms impacted the lives of civil servants, or how social structures shaped the new Civil Service profession. By analysing the Civil Service through the lenses of life cycle, family, and class, this study offers a new dimension to our understanding of the professionalization of the British state and society. Reforms evolved in ways that reflected and were influenced by changing attitudes to class, public office, life course, and family. Between 1847-1914, new Civil Service employment and career structures common to clerks from the aristocracy, middle classes, and working classes were developed, yet considerable disparities between the different levels of the Civil Service persisted. The professionalization of the British state played out in private as well as in public spheres, where family formations, intergenerational support, social connections, educational institutions, and voluntary associations meshed with the structures of the Civil Service in various forms in the late nineteenth century. By analysing the reform of the Civil Service from a social and cultural perspective and through thus far untapped sources, this thesis explores an important shift in British administrative, political, and social history.

At the heart of the late Anglo-Saxon political order lay a single relationship: the bond between the king and the powerful men of the realm. This thesis is concerned with the ways in which that relationship was established, then developed in written sources; centrally it will explore how kings forged such bonds with members of the lay elite. Chapter One argues that there is little evidence for the existence of a contemporary mentality in which kings attempted to use conceptual mechanisms to impose loyalty onto their men, either in legal or religious terms. Chapter Two proposes a new model for the analysis of royal diplomas for this period, wherein the strategic incentivisation of lay loyalty through the granting of bookland is revealed via the joint consideration of factors such as beneficiary status, rank, participation in the witan on the one hand, and estate size and location on the other. Chapter Three offers new interpretations of a range of extant royal policies from most reigns of the period in relation to the matter of loyalty, and demonstrates in this way that the surviving evidence for kings' management of their relationships with their lay elites is overwhelmingly characterised by the same overarching principles of constancy, community and active leadership. The thesis concludes that the loyalty of the lay elite in this period could not be taken for granted by kings as a simple corollary of their consecration, but was instead actively cultivated and negotiated. Kings not only offered incentive programmes but created communities of shared interest, devising novel ways in which to define magnates' identities through their loyalty to their king, and integrating those from frontier regions into the political and social fabric of West Saxon kingship.

The thesis investigates the conditions that explain the survival of pro-regime memorialisation in democratic Chile (1990 - 2020). A pro-regime memory site is a monument, memorial or symbolic marker (e.g., street name) built to celebrate a past authoritarian government. In Chile, these sites either praise the military coup of 11th of September 1973, glorify General Augusto Pinochet's 17-year dictatorship (1973 - 1990), or celebrate Military Junta members and civil collaborators. Their survival - that is, their maintenance by authorities (city councils, judicial actors) - is a striking phenomenon in a context in which victims' human rights memorials dominate the public space. To enhance the internal validity of the thesis, the elimination of pro-regime memorials is also investigated. The thesis elaborates a theoretical framework to explain the survival and elimination outcome, with four and five conditions, respectively. Using Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA), the research minimised the presence and absence of these conditions in a sample of 17 cases of pro-regime memorials. It obtained a parsimonious solution for both outcomes (survival and elimination). The QCA procedure uncovered that the survival of pro-regime memorialisation is explained by the presence of "Walls" (veto players), and a combination of "Silence" (absence of external intervention by NGOs and victims' associations) and "Local and/or Institutional Support" (support towards the site's survival by local communities and State institutions). Likewise, the elimination of pro-regime memorialisation is explained by the rejection of the site by the local community, or by a combination of civil society pressure and the presence of "Windows of Opportunity" (centre-left or left-wing city councils, or judges receptive to human rights). The results highlight the continued relevance of veto players in the survival of pro-regime memorialisation. The findings also emphasise the prominence of civil society, particularly local communities, in advancing both the survival and elimination of pro-regime memory sites in Chile.

This thesis offers new perspectives on the intellectual rationales employed to defend Henry VIII's royal supremacy. It affirms that, far from being explicable merely by reference to the exigencies of politics, the supremacy was shaped by ideas about the nature of temporal authority over the Church, and it demonstrates the importance of securing ideological commitment to the supremacy. The thesis addresses the intellectual case for the supremacy advanced by the English government, and especially by Thomas Cromwell, in the formative years of the 1530s, and the relationship between ideology and the institutional structures and functioning of the supremacy. The thesis also considers the application of the intellectual case for the supremacy to Ireland, although there the issues of Henry's supremacy played out over a longer period, and are therefore pursued to the end of Edward VI's reign. There are three principal elements to the thesis. The first concerns the role played by Cromwell in shaping the supremacy. It is argued that he initially promoted a parliamentary supremacy in accordance with his political philosophy, and manifested this by exercising the supremacy through statute. However, when Cromwell, as vicegerent, was endowed with extraordinary ecclesiastical powers, both the way in which the supremacy functioned, and the model of supremacy which he sanctioned in polemic, changed. The second revises previous scholarly interpretations of Christopher St German's proposals for the resolution of doctrinal issues by the king-in-Parliament, and argues that, ultimately, he repudiated his own theories. The third proposes that the intellectual case for the supremacy was compromised in Ireland by political circumstances there and by policy decisions taken by the English government, and argues that a failure to convey an adequate intellectual justification for the supremacy to the people of Ireland is a factor helping to explain the Reformation's rejection there.

The question of how medical experts and the state respond to rapidly spreading infectious diseases has obvious relevance amidst the current Covid-19 pandemic. The question of when and where these responses actually emerged, however, is far less apparent and far more opaque. This project studies the actions, writings and careers of British experts as they respond to three historic diseases - cholera, plague and tuberculosis - that all posed profound threats to Britain and its colonial empire. Beginning at the end of the 18th century, this postcolonial historical geography of medicine attends to what Chris Philo calls the 'stuff' of medicine, with particular focus on the relation between theories of contagion and practices of disease control. I trace the emergence of these acts and ideas through intra-imperial networks, which I argue held colony and metropole together in a state of mutual interpolation and co-constitution. Through this tracing, I uncover a particular arrangement or dispositif of theories, practices, individuals and institutions that were brought together by a single, striking argument: that the spread of disease is a consequence of the disorder innate to racialised populations and their inherent propensity to breach social and spatial boundaries. This argument justifies an expert, interventionist response that seeks to control the spread of disease through the coercive implementation of lines, borders and boundaries to contain disorder. I name this expansive dispositif 'counter-contagion'. This project begins by analysing four key components that constituted counter-contagion: Benthamite interventionism, counter-insurgency, racial science and germ theory. While these individual components all arose in the 19th century, it took until the 1890s for all four components to finally come together. During the Third Plague Pandemic in Hong Kong and Bombay (Mumbai), these components were combined into an expert-led, interventionist response that fused the medical with the martial. This new response, and the experts who enacted it, became part of a broader dispositif of counter-contagion that gained institutional weight through the progressive wing of tropical medicine. This institutionalisation effectively embedded the logics of counter-contagion in progressive medicine in twentieth century Britain, with decisive and understudied effects on the medical profession, the political sphere and broader civil society.

This DPhil thesis explores the origins and development of one of the most famous traditions within the Islamic Hadith corpus: the hadith of ʿĀʾišah bt. ʾabī Bakr's marriage to the Prophet at a young age. To this end, I surveyed all of the modern literature pertaining to the great debate over whether-or to what extent-we can date hadiths and their content, culminating in a defence of a specific-rigorous and systematic-version of the ʾisnād-cum-matn analysis. Thereafter, I collated every available version of every hadith pertaining to this topic and subjected them all to an ʾisnād-cum-matn analysis, which allowed me to reconstruct the underlying urtexts or redactions of various earlier tradents (mostly operating from the mid-to-late 8th Century CE), known as "common links". I then subjected these common-link redactions to various form-critical, geographical, and historical-critical analyses, which produced a striking conclusion: all versions of the marital-age hadith likely derive a single archetype or ur-hadith. This ur-hadith appears to have been created and disseminated by the Madinan tradent Hišām b. ʿUrwah b. al-Zubayr (d. 146-147/763-765) after he moved to Iraq towards the end of his life, probably as a reaction to local proto-Šīʿī polemics against his great-aunt, ʿĀʾišah. Following on from this, I traced the spread and diversification of the hadith across the early Abbasid Caliphate, including the way in which some Hadith scholars reworked its content and/or replaced the original isnad with local and/or familial isnads, thereby naturalising it in their respective regions. Thereafter, I explored the reception of the hadith by the proto-Sunnī Hadith critics, who rejected or criticised some versions, but accepted others, seemingly without a thorough or systematic investigation of their provenance and transmission. Finally, I explored the broader implications of all of this, including the ways in which my findings variously confirm or disconfirm the conclusions and predictions of other scholars, concerning the authenticity of the marital-age hadith in particular and the historical development of Hadith in general. In short, this thesis tracks the provenance and development of a famous and widespread hadith, from its genesis in the sectarian milieu of mid-8th-Century Iraq, to its spread and diversification across the early Abbasid Caliphate, to its canonisation at the hands of the proto-Sunnī Hadith critics.

This thesis examines the structures of politics in Castile in the fraught period between 1275 and 1325. Whereas these decades have frequently been viewed as the product of an inevitable confrontation between crown and nobility or as a chaotic caesura in Castile's march towards statehood, this thesis argues that the interpretive keys to the period lie in the evolving relationships between central and local structures, which explain how diverse elements of society were drawn into new patterns of dialogue, cooperation and conflict. Through a combination of documentary, normative and narrative sources, the first part traces the interlocking development of noble (Chapter 1), urban (Chapter 2) and royal (Chapter 3) power in three separate zones: the northern regions of Burgos and Valladolid, the medial areas of Ávila and Cuenca, and the southern kingdom of Murcia. It argues that the different conditions in each of these zones produced different configurations of power which affected patterns of interaction with the centre. The second part turns to the royal centre, showing how legal and judicial changes (Chapter 4), strategies of office-holding and grant-making (Chapter 5) and the ideology of the royal service (Chapter 6) drew political society into a structure that was highly dependent on convincing and undivided leadership at the centre. The final part applies these structural insights to a discussion of the events of 1275-1325, arguing that the dynamics of the reigns of Alfonso X and Sancho IV (Chapter 7) and Fernando IV and Alfonso XI (Chapter 8) can only be understood if we give due appreciation to the weight that the centre had acquired over the preceding century and the strategies that various agents actually pursued when faced with structural crisis. In place of a narrative of chaos and disaggregation, therefore, this thesis posits one of integration and reciprocal development.

Critics of partisanship argue that partisans lack independence of thought, and that their righteousness and zeal pose a threat to compromise, deliberation, civility and reasonableness. These very contemporary concerns about partisanship echo eighteenth-century complaints in Britain, where worries about partisans' independence, righteousness and zeal were rife. This is therefore a fruitful period to turn to for insights into virtuous partisanship. Historians of early modern political thought on party and partisanship have exclusively turned to canonical men, however, who are primarily concerned with harmony and unity. By contrast, I explore the political thought and lives of two eighteenth-century English female political thinkers and partisans, Mary Astell (1666-1731) and Catharine Macaulay (1731-1791). Whilst they were excluded from formal institutions of politics, they were to some extent also politically included, in that they were involved partisans who belonged to a political group and contributed to political debates. This thesis shows that when we consider the marginalised perspective of Astell and Macaulay on partisanship, we find an innovative, radical and alternative way of thinking about partisanship, as well as a critique of the ethics of partisanship presented by Anglo-Saxon political theorists today. Astell and Macaulay argued that a partisan was virtuous provided she was zealous, righteous, sincere and independent. As such, their theories differ greatly from both those conceptions found in their male contemporaries, such as Lord Shaftesbury, Charles Davenant, Edmund Burke and David Hume, but also from those found in the present-day political theory literature. These conceptions tend to be grounded in compromise, loyalty, friendship and reasonableness, which Astell and Macaulay decidedly rejected as partisan virtues. Before we heed calls for striving towards civic friendship or attempting to seek harmony and denounce discord, we would do well to listen to Astell and Macaulay. By recovering their loudest voices, that is, their partisan voices, this thesis not only brings to the fore unduly neglected figures in the history of political thought, but also enriches our understanding of partisanship by considering it from the perspective from the margins.

The 1915 anti-Moor pogrom was the first major episode of popular ethno-religious violence in Ceylon. Between 29 May and 6 June 1915, Sinhalese-led violence targeted Moors (the largest Muslim ethnic group in Ceylon), and included murders, rapes, assaults, attacks on mosques and homes, and the destruction of over 4,000 shops. The spectre of '1915' has in the last decade received renewed attention in the context of escalating anti-Muslim violence in Sri Lanka (Ceylon was renamed in 1972). Why did this violence take place between Sinhalese and Moors? In my thesis, I re-open this neglected chapter in Ceylon's history, critically re-examine the deeper roots of ethno-religious violence between Sinhalese and Moors, and present a historical narrative of cycles of intolerance and victimisation. I explore the role of colonial policies and discourse in bringing ethno-religious groups into conflict with each other, and reassess certain positions taken in the existing historiography on the pogrom, as well as popular narratives on the outbreak, spread and aftermath of the pogrom. I then examine the colonial state's failure to pre-empt this violence in 1915 and its harsh belated suppression of the violence. My research uncovers a longer-term history of ethno-religious violence and investigates the ethnic and religious sensibilities and identities that crystalised from the mid-nineteenth century onwards. To do so, I repeatedly shift lenses from the microscopic, to the local, to the global, in analysing Sinhalese-Moor contestation in the religious, economic, and social spheres, and the clash between indigenous practices and colonial legislation. In my treatment of the 1915 pogrom, I locate the violence within the global context (the Islamic revival, and later, the First World War for example), and shed light on broader historiographical questions pertaining to the history of British colonialism in Ceylon.

This thesis examines the constitutional framework of early seventeenth-century Chosŏn Korea and how power was shared between key actors and relevant institutions at court as well as the question of how these institutions related to and interacted with each other. Previous research has shown that the power of the Chosŏn monarch was not absolute. Court officials and bureaucrats could exercise control over the monarch, but their control remained limited. The main research objective of this study is to determine which factors influenced or determined whether the king could sway the court on individual policy decisions and vice versa. Court debate stands out as a method of peaceful conflict resolution. King and court officials engaged in what can best be described as legal debates in order to determine whether a policy would be in accordance with precedents, ethical treatises, and various other sources of law. This study also examines the role of heretofore ignored further political actors with the power to influence or determine policy decisions, namely the Queen Dowager as head of the royal household, and the Ming court. The thesis provides a series of case studies outlining instances of dispute between the monarch, top-level bureaucrats, members of the royal family, and representatives of the Ming court. In chronological order the case studies include King Kwanghae's family politics, namely his fratricides, the posthumous promotion of his mother, the imprisonment of the Queen Dowager, his foreign policy of non-alignment in the Later Jin-Ming conflict, as well as the dethronement of King Kwanghae and the development of royal authority under the rule of King Injo. It is hoped that this thesis will contribute to a deepened understanding of Chosŏn statehood and shed more light on the Kwanghae-Injo period.

This dissertation marries multiple genres of historical inquiry, and draws upon underappreciated academic insights from Japan, China, and Taiwan to consider two questions. First, how the 'professional' Chinese diplomat, fluent in the sociocultural expectations of Western European diplomacy, emerged in the early twentieth century from a country whose various dynasties had, for two millennia, led and participated in an entirely distinct diplomatic culture of its own. And second, how a group of non-Chinese intermediaries working in China's first modern diplomatic institutions helped nurture this transformation. The story it tells sits at the intersection between Chinese, diplomatic, and transnational history. However, its methodology is decidedly interdisciplinary: it is one of the first studies of modern Chinese diplomatic history to draw upon the 'New Diplomatic History', a pioneering approach that moves beyond the field's traditional focus on the high politics of state-to-state level interactions, to interrogate the overlooked actors, sites, circuitries and processes of diplomatic interaction using insights from sociology, literary theory, and network analysis. Today, the 'Chinese diplomat' has become synonymous with the invective-hurling 'Wolf Warrior' diplomats that embody the aggressive and normatively out-of-kilter diplomacy of the People's Republic of China. However, recent scholarship emerging from Japan, China and Taiwan has demonstrated that by the 1910s, Qing China (1644-1912) had cultivated a competent corps of professional diplomats who could perform confidently on the international stage, and who-unlike their 'Wolf Warrior' successors-fully embraced Western European diplomacy's normative prescriptions for diplomatic conduct and practice. For the Qing, the sociocultural, linguistic, and pragmatic chasms that had to be crossed to achieve this engagement with Western diplomatic culture constituted a remarkable feat of socialisation. From the first century AD until 1895, China had led its own distinct diplomatic culture. In this China-focused international order, 'tributary' states such as Korea and Vietnam subscribed ideologically to a hierarchical order in which the primacy of Chinese civilisation and the mandate of the Chinese emperor to rule all sublunary things were given articulation through a variety of rituals and cultural practices. However, in the mid-nineteenth century, foreign encroachment upon China compelled the dynasty to develop a framework for engaging with states on equal terms and according to the normative prescriptions of Western European diplomatic culture. At its core, this dissertation asks the question of 'how, by the early twentieth century, did Qing China achieve normative mastery of Western European diplomatic practice and culture, and in the process, produce a corps of professional diplomats whose expertise and experience would feed into and fuel later Chinese diplomacy?'. The pioneering Japanese- and Chinese-language scholarship alluded to above has, to date, only considered this process from the perspectives of Qing diplomats' receptivity to international law and institutional shifts. However, to be a 'professional' diplomat in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was to possess sociocultural fluency in manners and etiquette, to display oratorical and rhetorical distinction in European languages, to dissimulate where appropriate, and to have cultivated the pragmatism to bring these skills to bear, where appropriate, for accessing networks of knowledge and power. Indeed, to be 'one of them' was not just about possessing specialist knowledge of international law, but rather about the ability to recognise and perform sociocultural nuances that were either reified as ambassadorial ideals in diplomatic handbooks, or, in many cases, just expected implicitly. This dissertation interrogates how this metamorphosis was articulated in the everyday tools and circuitry of Qing diplomatic practice, including the art of negotiation, the crafting of rhetoric in specialised linguistic registers, and the deployment of the press. In doing this, however, this study employs a novel methodological lens. It interrogates the shifting roles of subministerial foreign actors working within Qing China's legations as interpreters, secretaries, counsellors, and legal advisers. An interrogation of the foreign presence working within China's legations may seem like a bizarre way of addressing the research question outlined above. Why not just look at how China's diplomats themselves were operating? This methodology in fact derives from Qing approaches to diplomatic practice in the period under question. Initially, foreigners were employed in the Qing's legations to perform tasks that the Qing diplomats and their staff themselves could not, or did not want, to do. Indeed, at least initially, any form of profound engagement with 'Western affairs'-of which diplomacy constituted a sub-genre-was anathema to the Confucian scholar-officials who piloted these new overseas institutions in a ministerial capacity. This was indicative of the ideological milieu that the Qing bureaucrats were socialised into: to engage at any level of profundity with a non-Chinese civilisation was to engage in barbarism. What's more, these Qing officials had not arrived at their overseas posts as 'diplomats' replete with training in the morass of implicit customs and practices that undergirded Western European diplomacy; they were learning as they went along. Given such circumstances, the work delegated to and performed by these foreigners, and the evolution of the content of this work, provides a unique space from which we can derive new insights about the nature of the Qing's interaction with Western European diplomatic practice and culture. This novel methodological approach has proven to be highly effective. Drawing on multilingual archival sources collected in America, Britain, France, Japan, and Taiwan, this study reveals that while these foreigners were first employed by the Qing in the late 1870s to handle cultural explication, interpretation and clerical work, their roles were fundamentally transformed in the 1880s. From this period, they came to exert a leading influence on Qing diplomacy as rhetoricians, orators, negotiators, press officers, networkers and strategists. I argue that this transformation was indicative of a rapid macro-level transformation in the Qing's engagement with Western European diplomatic practice and culture, in that their use of foreigners in this way demonstrated, among other things, a desire to persuade their diplomatic interlocutors that they were a competent diplomatic entity who ought to be taken seriously. In the early twentieth century, however, a shift towards the dismantling of this foreign presence and the extent of its involvement in Chinese diplomacy could be observed. This new phase in the evolution of Chinese diplomatic practice, I argue, can broadly be understood as indicative of the emergence of the professional Chinese diplomat. Indeed, having now come to conceive of itself in Western terms as a sovereign nation-state, China identified diplomacy, in the Western sense, as an indispensable component of statecraft that ought to be overseen and run on a day-to-day basis by Chinese actors. At the same time, this study reveals that the foreigners who worked in the Qing's legations were not mere middlemen. Their craft involved the transposing of complex levels of nuance from one party to the other and the reformatting of Qing views as culturally commensurable ideas that their foreign interlocutors could understand. At times, they even engaged in their own private diplomatic interventions that aimed to bring about a fairer outcome for the Qing. Their work also provided an inadvertent or, at times, deliberate, model for their Qing colleagues on the execution of specific nuances of diplomatic practice. In other words, their significance goes far beyond their utility as a methodological device. They, too, were critical contributors to the Qing diplomatic metamorphosis.

Archaeological investigations, beginning in 2012, have done much to recover, record and interpret the remains of a large garden of the seventeenth century in the grounds of Hanwell Castle, Oxfordshire. The garden is important not only because it is a rare example of an essentially intact garden from the period but also because of a reference made to Sir Anthony Cope by Robert Plot in his Natural History of Oxfordshire where he describes his house, and by extension the contents of his garden, as the real 'New Atlantis', referring to a fictional prototype of a science based community posited by Sir Francis Bacon in 1626. Some of the features within the garden are reported on and a number of individuals associated with it documented. The implications of Plot's record of 'a society of learned virtuosi living obscurely' at another Cope family property at Tangley, also in Oxfordshire, are examined. Beginning with a consideration of the practical and theoretical basis for the study of historic gardens this work goes on to look at the evolution of garden design from the middle ages to the start of the seventeenth century. It emphasises the indigenous tradition of working with bodies of water whilst also considering the effects of continental developments, through the course of the Renaissance, on garden design and especially, hydraulic engineering. A detailed account of the Cope family, their social and intellectual circle and their work on the gardens at Hanwell is accompanied by description and analysis of the physical remains of the garden which are compared and contrasted with other contemporary gardens. Of particular importance is the discovery of a unique assemblage of seventeenth-century terra-cotta garden urns which are reported on and set within the context of the technology and economics of the time. In taking up Plot's challenging remark possible links with the early scientific community in Oxford are established and the role of the site in the development of contemporary thinking reviewed along with a general consideration of the part played by gardens in the development of science in the early modern period.

This DPhil thesis, Sugar in the British Atlantic World 1650-1720, seeks to analyse the effect and extent of the sugar trade in the seventeenth century. By 1700, sugar was one of the most important commodities in Europe. It was the driving force behind the trafficking of hundreds of thousands of people, huge accumulation of capital, the growth of international trade, and a number of important subsidiary industries. The development of the institution of chattel slavery and its influence on the history of capitalism has been the subject of many scholarly investigations, however there has been comparatively little work done on the consumption on sugar itself. The thesis, therefore, examines trade in sugar across the Atlantic Ocean and tracks the ways in which the good was consumed. The intellectual contribution of the thesis comes from its discussion of extensive archival material which identifies the extent of early sugar consumption and which traces how the good transformed from luxury to everyday comestible. Building on from this, the work also seeks to understand the repercussions of such consumption for the Atlantic economy. It demonstrates the key role played by sugar in the rapidly changing economic systems and culture. Tracking consumption of sugar in the British Atlantic world tells us more about the state of the sugar trade as a whole, and the global economic system which it helped to forge. The research gives insight into the development of international trading networks, the commercialisation of the British Atlantic economy and, underneath it all, the reliance of the metropolitan environment on exploitation in the colonies.

This thesis examines victim/survivor experiences of rape and other sexual violations in late medieval France and Burgundy. Though scholars have studied rape in medieval France, few have considered what it was like for the women who endured rape, and none have explored how victims/survivors thought about their own consent. This thesis addresses that gap in the scholarship, proposes new methods for how we might examine victim/survivor experience in medieval documents, and argues that the only ethical study of rape is one that foregrounds such experiences. When rape was violent, women often resisted violently, and understood their ability to consent as something worth physically defending. The discourse of consent had great rhetorical power, and it was used to justify the victim's/survivor's violent actions in the face of rape, reinscribing them with personhood. But other, non-violent sex acts could also be harmful, such as marital promises used to coerce women into sex. Women in medieval France understood that their husbands might perpetrate sexual abuse against them, and that these acts were violative, even if they were not termed rapes. Victim/survivor experience was shaped by the community they lived in, and how others responded to the rape. Dijon was a community with a culture of rape and a culture of resistance. Its rape culture was characterized by physical violence, gang rapes, and the victimization of marginalized and/or vulnerable women. The culture of resistance was characterized by the anger and fear that victims/survivors felt and the defence they mounted against the rapists, but also by the community support they received in the form of testimony and direct intervention. Sex workers were extremely vulnerable to rape due to the nature of their employment, their social status, and the manner in which men tended to treat them. But despite this vulnerability they too had community ties and access to the courts.

This thesis examines the emergence and influence of the 'Pan-Pacific' idea from the 1910s-1940s. It makes the case that to a diverse demographic globally, it proved a compelling regional geo-paradigm; the institutions it inspired, significant inter-imperial spaces for representatives from the former British Dominions to consider their society's place in the world and the region's globality. Situated at the intersection of 'British' and 'Pacific' World historiographies, the thesis is organised as a multi-thematic intellectual history, demonstrating the capacious appeal and ideological multiformity of the Pan-Pacific in educational, ethnological, leftist, commercial and geopolitical contexts respectively. Chapter 1 explores the intellectual roots of the Pan-Pacific, examining the institutional archives and private papers of figures associated with the Institute of Pacific Relations and Pan-Pacific Union. It argues that a 'Honolulu nexus' in inter-imperial affairs emerged, influencing a greater appraisal of the Dominions' own interests, including a form of 'rooted regionalism', largely neglected in the extant literature. Chapter 2 examines how the Pan-Pacific proved a conduit for the examination of race relations through the ethnological research programme of Honolulu's Bishop Museum and its investigations into the 'Polynesian Question' (the then disputed origins of the peoples of Oceania). Chapter 3 examines the attractions of the 'political left' to the Pan-Pacific, exploring the affiliation of trade unions in the Dominions to the Comintern-backed Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat. Chapter 4 explores how the Pan-Pacific idea boosted a regional commercial imaginary, whilst shedding light on the emergence of the Dominions' own nascent regional trade representation in the form of regional 'Honorary Agents'. The final chapter considers the emergence of trans-Pacific aviation and its influence upon conceptions of Dominion defence from sites spread across a Pan-Pacific cartography - from the atolls of the Phoenix Islands to the Kermadecs, spaces which found renewed significance in the 'Air Age'.

This work examines the lives and wellbeing of Irish women in the United States from 1850 until 1914, encompassing the end of the famine and the age of mass European migration. Irish migration in this period has been the subject of a large body of research, but existing studies have focused primarily on men, despite Irish female migrants often outnumbering male migrants in the late nineteenth century. The decision to emigrate in this period has frequently been explained by wage differentials between Ireland and destination countries, but this was only one factor in a multifaceted process. The importance of the family and the home is usually overlooked, despite their centrality to the decision to emigrate; and insufficient attention has been paid to how the experiences and circumstances of Irish émigrés changed over time. Most glaringly, the particular experiences of female migrants have not been given sufficient attention, with the result that our knowledge of this exceptional group of women is scanty, and their seminal impact on the broader history of Irish emigration is underplayed. This thesis takes a new and innovative approach to Irish emigration research, an approach which questions many of the assumptions underlying existing analysis. It does so in four main ways. First, this thesis places women at the centre of the analysis, considering their life in Ireland and, for emigres, their life in the United States. Second, it adopts a broad approach to wellbeing that extends beyond the typical and androcentric focus on real wages. Third, it considers how the lives of Irish women evolved over their life course, as workers, wives, mothers and widows. Fourth, it adopts a multi-level approach which combines numbers with narratives. The former includes United States micro-census data which provides information on all individuals in 1880, allowing for a new, national and comparative picture of women's lives. The latter includes parliamentary papers, newspaper articles, philanthropic studies of urban life, and charity reports. Moreover, this thesis employs letters of Irish women, to extrapolate how these women themselves perceived their own lives. Through this examination, this thesis shows the multidimensional nature of women's wellbeing, and how women's lives often deteriorated as migrant women aged. Although many women found independence and wellbeing in the US in their youth, many older women were left alone and destitute. Yet these women and their voices are central to our understanding of the history of Ireland, migration, and the making of the modern America.

This thesis explores changes in the content and material culture of a group of scriptures known as the Foshuo fumu enzhong jing 佛說父母恩重經 (the Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on the Profoundness of Parents' Kindness) during the Tang (618-907) and Northern Song (960-1127) dynasties, examining their relationship to the broader development of Buddhist beliefs and Confucian and other pre-existing non-Buddhist ideas, such as filial piety and ancestor worship. In contrast to previous philological studies that sought to identify the various versions of this scripture and determine the textual origins of its composition, this thesis pays special attention to the objects on which the scriptures are written and inscribed, such as stelae and manuscripts. By giving serious consideration to their inscriptions, material forms, and physical locations against the socio-political backdrop that encouraged their production, this project addresses questions of the uses of the stelae and manuscripts by ordinary, largely unrecorded people in rural localities of Shandong and Dunhuang and the purposes of their patronage.

This thesis explores the development and complexities of queer existence shown 'from below', that is to say, focusing on the direct speech of non-elite homosexual men and sexual and gender non-conformists from the late imperial era up to the 1930s. The current historiography of homosexuality provides a somewhat limited view, emphasizing the importance and overarching influence of medical and legal discourses on queer subjects. The thesis offers a different perspective, shifting the analysis of hegemonic discourses of experts to the self-expression of homosexuals and gender and sexual non-conformists in the tumultuous time of the 1920s. More broadly, the thesis seeks to answer the question of when a modern homosexual identity emerges not as a scientifically constructed type but as a self-accepted category. The thesis attempts to reorient our understanding of the difference between the sodomite and the homosexual, demonstrating the process of self-fashioning as a crucial element of modern sexuality. It has been previously acknowledged that the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the abrogation of the anti-sodomy article greatly influenced the understanding of homosexuality by medical professionals and triggered the proliferation of new approaches to it. Following this assessment, the thesis demonstrates how homosexuals and gender and sexual non-conformists inventively absorbed new knowledge to fashion themselves and made sense of their 'abnormal' sexuality. Even those who continued self-pathologizing were not passive objects of expert indoctrination. They conflicted with the doctors and sought new options to be cured. Others overcame the limited frame of 'deviant sexuality', insisting on their inclusion in the new society on their terms ('no conventions will convince us that our actions are criminal and abnormal'). Being primarily focused on self-identified homosexuals and those males who experienced same-sex relations, this thesis also recognizes that emancipatory impulses were not restricted to them and greatly influenced a gamut of sexual and gender non-conformists who cannot be easily defined in modern terms of LGBTQ nomenclature.

In the conflict between Holy Emperor Frederick II and Pope Innocent IV, the papal argument that this change of power was a crusade and thus a holy war with an important spiritual dimension largely failed to take hold in Germany. Instead, the way the crusade unfolded in practice was determined by the logic of attaining royal power in Germany, while the political and legal necessities for Frederick II's deposition determined how Pope Innocent IV chose to phrase the justification for war. Politics drove religious ideology in a way that made it distinct from other crusades. Thus, the crusade against the Staufer merits description as a 'political crusade.' The analysis is based on thirteenth century chronicles and annals, mainly produced in Germany but also beyond, as well as charters issued by protagonists of the conflict. Most chronicles and annals did not report the military campaigns by using language typical of crusading. Hence chronicles create a dissimilar picture of the same events to papal letters, which are often prescriptive. The difference in language between the sources has shaped the historiography on the crusade until this day. The crusade was shaped by the prerequisites of becoming the new King of the Romans, and of putting rulership into practice. Henry Raspe conceptualised his military strategy as a direct fight to overthrow Conrad IV, while William of Holland strengthened his rule after his coronation by conquering imperial lands and property, especially royal palaces. Juxtaposing their strategies highlights their different approaches to affecting a change of power in Germany. By addressing this hitherto neglected subject, the thesis contributes to two disciplines: to crusader studies by analysing the crusade against the Staufer in its German context, and to German history by explaining the role the crusade played in the conflict between Emperor Frederick II and the papacy.

Malaria was the deadliest infectious disease in colonial Assam, but the malady received less attention from government officials and medical officers than other diseases. Additionally, malaria in Assam has received relatively little attention from modern historians. This project sits at the intersection of medical, colonial, and environmental histories, and contributes to discussions in the history of malaria, Assam, and British India. It explores the history of malaria in colonial Assam between 1826 and 1939. The approach is largely one of historical epidemiology; it analyses mortality and morbidity data on 'Fevers' and attempts made by the government and medical officers to understand and prevent the disease. Assam was transformed by British rule, and the trajectories of both malaria and society were strongly influenced by colonial rule during this time period. The ecology of Assam was heavily modified to support the province's biggest industry- tea. In the process, jungles were cleared, millions of immigrant labourers were recruited, and malaria flourished. Efforts to reduce malaria across the province failed, and public health as a practice was often structured around keeping immigrant labourers healthy and industrial enclaves productive. Exploring anti-malarial measures in the province and the relationship between the creation of medical knowledge and public health praxis, this project touches on the topics of colonial 'development', quinine, mosquito control measures, and epidemiology. This dissertation argues that malaria played a pivotal role in the history of colonial Assam; that historians are able to gain some understanding of the presence and effects of the disease even when knowledge in the past was limited; and that perceptions of the disease, attempts to control it, and that both human and non-human factors that contributed to malaria were heavily influenced by colonial forces.

This thesis centres on a small group of clerics within the Church of England, all of whom travelled throughout either Mughal India or the Ottoman Empire during the seventeenth century. It examines their understandings and perceptions of the myriad religious traditions that populated those states, most notably Eastern Christianity and Islam. In so doing, this thesis explores the impact of travel to the Mughal and Ottoman empires, and of first-hand exposure to their religious diversity specifically, on how English travellers thought about religious theory, ceremony and practice within the Church of England. In short, it considers how experiences of travel within the East shaped English travellers' views of the right and wrong ways of worshipping God, and how they sought to apply this knowledge in their service of the English Church. Within this broader framework, this thesis makes several interlocking arguments. Firstly, that our travellers used their experiences overseas to reflect on the role of Church-led education and learning in the cultivation and consolidation of right worship. Secondly, that there exists a uniquely English, as opposed to Western, or European, experience of the Mughal and Ottoman empires in the early modern period, insofar as that experience was shaped by uniquely domestic frames of reference, regarding, say, the Church of England. And finally, that our travellers, as a result of their experiences abroad, frequently thought and wrote about religious issues in ways that distinguished them from their non-travelling contemporaries, and that paved the way for new, and even controversial, intellectual and practical approaches to the established Church. In making these arguments, this thesis seeks to open up new avenues for the study of early modern English travel, on the one hand, and of the early modern Church of England, on the other.

This thesis explores the representation of the early modern English state in a selection of drama performed in London's public theatres between 1590 and 1610. It examines nine plays that enact recognisable legal process and relationships between magistrate and community, to investigate how the public theatres manifested the state. The state has been of great interest to historians over the last twenty years, with social historians often relying upon the term 'performance' to articulate the way that magistrates needed to enact their legitimacy to those they attempted to govern. My thesis develops this historiography by conceptualising the exercise of magisterial authority as a performance that brought the state into being. While magistrates needed to perform legitimacy, they performed the state every time they successfully carried out their duties: they constituted a version of the state where the magistrate did have legitimate authority in the minds of witnesses. As such, I examine the plays in performance, partly by using practice-as-research workshops which stage the plays according to early modern production conventions. While these plays have largely been ignored as representations of the state, in performance they vividly manifest their own states, often presenting the state's failings as the source of tragedy. These plays articulate concerns and debates about the state's functioning and structure, often without expressing these ideas verbally: embodied action manifested the state for audience interpretation, the drama's manipulation of genre and emotional response shaping praise and criticism of the state enacted onstage. This has profound historiographical ramifications. While ordinary Londoners might not use the terms in which jurists and monarchs debated the state, they could recognise the state processes enacted in the public theatres: the state was perfectly apprehensible by those audiences, and drama was a key participant in debate over the structure and functioning of the state.

Art was integral to the lives of the late Stuart aristocracy. Through case studies of the art patronage of three aristocratic couples, this interdisciplinary thesis examines their stylistic influences, the strategies and networks that underlay their patronage, and why they invested so much time, effort, and money on buildings, interiors, gardens, and moveable works of art. In doing so, it illuminates the dynamics of late Stuart aristocratic society, while simultaneously deepening our understanding of the art itself. It explores the relationship between monarchy and aristocracy in the pivotal decades around the Glorious Revolution, finding that despite the profound political consequences of the Revolution, the court continued to attract the aristocracy as the leader of artistic fashion. It emphasises that aristocrats were integrated into wider European court culture, and shows how they adopted a range of strategies to obtain fashionable and exclusive foreign artworks in order to demonstrate their proximity to the centres of fashion and differentiate themselves from their peers. They employed immigrant artists and craftsmen, adopted European designs, and some travelled to the continent, modelling their patronage on the European potentates they encountered. This thesis dethrones the lone male patron by identifying the household staff and agents, and kinship, county, associational and political networks that were integral to art patronage. It also considers the dynamics of conjugal patronage, uncovering the important contribution of married women, while recognising that it was circumscribed within legal, economic, and social strictures. Finally, it questions previous assumptions that aristocratic art, particularly in country houses, was politically motivated and directed towards instrumental purposes. Differentiating between politics and power, it demonstrates that these aristocrats principally used art to demonstrate and maintain their status through displays of magnificence; to invest in their estates on behalf of the dynasty; and to commemorate their own achievements for posterity.

The Tōyō Eiwa Jogakkō, Shizuoka Eiwa Jogakkō, and Yamanashi Eiwa Jogakkō girls' mission schools were founded by the Woman's Missionary Society of the Methodist Church of Canada (from 1925 the United Church of Canada) in the 1880s in Tokyo, Shizuoka, and Kōfu, Japan respectively. The students, graduates, missionaries, and Japanese educators of these three institutions were physically and intellectually part of a transnational network of Christian women and organizations in 1920s and 1930s Japan. The community these inter-generational and non-diplomatic Eiwa actors built, the communication and exchange students undertook, and the mobility of graduates transcended state boundaries of Japan, Canada, and beyond. By exploring individuals and activities of these three girls' schools and the network they constructed in the pre-WWII period, this thesis expands our understanding of educational and intellectual life in 1930s Japan. Through network development, physical and intellectual spatial construction, and curriculum and activity design, these historical actors reached outside their institutions to actively connect themselves and their peers with the wider world. In the 1930s, this appears to have been conducted with a sense of urgency. Ultimately, these schools survived a tense and nationalistic period of world history to operate into the present day. By shifting the lens from male educators to little-known women including students, and from missionaries to include Japanese actors, this study shows within these spaces mutual exchange and communication across national borders, international education, and discussions on and activities related to world peace took place throughout the 1930s. These actors envisioned Christianity, women, youth, education, and mutual exchange across state and East-West divides as able to foster understanding between individuals of different nations. This thesis thus looks to Eiwa women and youth in their roles as graduates, educators, and students to demonstrate a dynamic understanding of 1930s Japanese educational and intellectual life.

This thesis concerns cases against harm-causing animals which occurred in France in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. I have focused on Eastern and Northern France, particularly Burgundy and areas around Paris. As a subject deemed at best a curiosity and at worst a remnant of a superstitious age, my purpose is to suggest how we might more effectively read, interpret, and understand cases where an animal that had killed a human became subject to the judicial process. To this end, I put forward a study revealing practices and modes of thought that both reaffirmed and challenged the notion of animals as criminals. Specifically, I am interested in the ways criminal status was applied or denied after an animal had killed a human. In receipts of animal executions found in seigneurial financial registers, for example, criminality was applied through the use of particular legal terminology and the insistence on following standard criminal procedure. Here, the status of the animal was no longer that of mere property; it acquired a legal personality with which to operate within the confines of the law. This transformation from legal object to legal subject not only challenged the idea that humans, and only humans, could be subjects within the law, but it highlighted the flexibility and adaptability of the legal system. By examining moments of criminalisation alongside sources in which harm-causing animals were denied a legal personality, such as within the customary tradition, I challenge the persistent historiography which portrays the treatment of such animals in medieval France as static or uniform. The records show that there was not a single 'medieval' attitude toward criminal animals, but rather multiple discourses that existed side by side. My sources thus range from customals and legal commentaries, to receipts and petitions relating to verifiable cases. Instead of one narrative, I will present here a multitude of views that engaged with as well as argued against the idea of criminal animals.

This thesis examines the Wrest Circle to understand the connection between literary coteries and garden design in the mid-eighteenth century. The Wrest circle, named after Wrest Park in Bedfordshire, centred on Philip Yorke, later 2nd Earl of Hardwicke, and his wife, Jemima Marchioness Grey. Although many members of the Wrest circle held prominent public positions and engaged with the commercial literary world, significantly, they chose to keep their literary compositions within the remit of this inner circle. The coterie also had a significant role in the garden design at Wrest Park, creating the Mithraic Glade that referenced its private literary compositions. While visitors did come to see the gardens at Wrest, nobody beyond the inner circle could understand the full significance of the enigmatic altar and root-house. Critical attention has tended to focus on coteries as part of the public sphere, yet the Wrest circle problematises this understanding, not least since the coterie went to great lengths to make its literary works - and private references in the gardens at Wrest Park - inaccessible to outsiders. Thus, the question underpinning this thesis is how far, and in what ways, could an elite coterie retain exclusivity against a backdrop in which country houses - and coterie compositions themselves - were increasingly subsumed into the public sphere through domestic tourism and the print trade? Key to understanding the inner circle is the correspondence between members. Not only do the letters allow some insight into the social dynamics between members and the personal references that appear in their literary compositions, but letters also provide a virtual space for intellectual engagement and discussion. This is particularly important in the instance of the female members of the coterie, who were careful not to advertise their literary or intellectual pursuits beyond their immediate close network of friends. While studies of women's sociability and intellectual engagement in the eighteenth-century has tended to focus on 'public' intellectuals such as the Bluestocking circle, this thesis will demonstrate the way in which some elite women operated in an exclusive literary circle. Thus, this thesis also seeks to demonstrate that the women of the Wrest circle offer a particularly interesting example of women's agency and participation in a country house coterie. Chapter 1 introduces the members of the Wrest circle through their unpublished manuscript, Wrestiana, using the compositions to explore their academic interests, as well as understand the tensions within the group. Chapter 2 explores the academic and political context for the Athenian Letters, one of the coterie's key texts that several members composed while they were at the University of Cambridge in the early 1740s. Chapter 3 examines the literary allusions in the gardens at Wrest Park in order to understand the different layers of interpretation that were available to visitors, depending on their proximity to the inner members of the circle and their compositions. Chapter 4 examines the coterie's travel accounts to understand the way in which, through their exclusive scribal network, members engaged in social readings of the gardens that they visited. Ultimately, this thesis argues that understanding the connection between coterie compositions and garden design in the context of the country house offers the potential to reframe our understanding of the distinction between public and private.

This thesis sets out to recover the agency of a wide range of Indian Muslim actors-elite and subaltern, secular and clerical, activist and apolitical-to illuminate the history of the world's largest religious minority. Bringing the unity of the Muslim experience of postcolonial India from 1947 to c. 1977 under a single focus, it both generalises about the Indian Muslim condition and comments more broadly on the character of Indian democracy. The six chapters here tell of another India, as it were, one quite at variance with the exnominated account of the 'world's largest democracy'. Despite its best intentions, the Congress regime that ruled uninterruptedly through the period under study here appears, by turns, illiberal, intolerant, and undemocratic. Minority rights were at a discount. India's Muslims, I document, had to contend with discrimination in the services, an electoral system that deprived them of commensurate representation, riots in which they accounted for most of the fatalities, a securitisation regime in the borderlands that dispossessed and disenfranchised them, and, a fortiori, an unresponsive leadership. Indeed, what I have called an 'ashraf betrayal' is the Ariadne's thread running through the thesis. Steering between the Scylla of Islamophobia and the Charybdis of capitulation, the Muslim political elite plumped for depoliticisation and juridification. Muslim politics came to be identified with a set of elite symbols-the hajj subsidy, Urdu, Aligarh Muslim University, Muslim personal law, wasiqadari pensions, waqf income-that had little bearing on the lives of ordinary Muslims, shaped by discrimination, disadvantage, and deindustrialisation. There was no room for trade unions, mass protests, anti-discrimination legislation, and subaltern solidarity in this version of Muslim politics. The corollary was a jurisprudential habit of mind, the singular investment in two holy books, the Quran and the Constitution. 'Muslim politics' in postcolonial India, I conclude, has been a politics manqué.

Holocaust education has expanded in its purpose and status between 1987 and 2018, reflecting increasing practices and rituals of remembrance in Holocaust memory. Whilst changes in policy, museums, memorials, cultural productions and school textbooks have all been examined by Holocaust scholars, the practice of Holocaust education in classrooms has avoided scrutiny in memory studies and history of education despite becoming a primary place of memory transmission. This thesis considers the role of the secondary school history teacher, as a consumer, producer and mediator of Holocaust memories. It argues teachers do not simply present the 'official' textbook narrative of history to school pupils, but construct a historical memory based on their beliefs about the purpose of history education, the needs of society and the needs of their pupils. Their lessons and pedagogies are informed and challenged by the cultural memory of the Holocaust, memories of their own family histories of the Second World War, and also current affairs and politics. Accordingly, their mnemonic nexus articulates the dynamics of collective memory. Using oral semi-structured 'life history' interviews with history teachers, this thesis explores the mnemonic influences on individual teachers' understanding of the Holocaust in four localities across England and France. Combined with a review of professional teaching magazines and journals, and local newspapers, this thesis charts the trajectory of Holocaust education across Aix-en-Provence, Leeds/Bradford, Lincolnshire and Marseille. By doing so, it looks for moments when family memory enriched or subverted dominant narratives of the Holocaust, as well as the relationship between Holocaust education and other 'difficult histories' of genocide and empire. As teachers engage emotionally with the Holocaust, this thesis argues that teachers also aimed to produce emotion in classrooms as a tool to shape 'future citizens' and to develop local, national and European identities.

This thesis examines the role of anticommunism in French politics and society from the end of the Second World War to 1953. While previous historians have analysed anticommunism among politicians and intellectuals, few have addressed its wider social ramifications. I evaluate the prevalence of anticommunism among the French population, and examine its causes, character, and consequences through a series of case studies on different segments of French society. These include the French scouting movement; family organisations; agricultural associations; middle-class groups; and, trade unions and other working-class organisations. I contend that anticommunism was more widespread and deeply rooted in French society than previously believed, and had a substantial impact both on national politics and on the social groups and organisations studied. Furthermore, by examining how French citizens responded to anticommunism, I argue we can gain a deeper understanding of the values that different individuals, groups, and organisations regarded as the most important to defend. Although anticommunism was a diverse phenomenon, I identify common discourses which connect to wider anxieties of the period. These include portrayals of communism as a threat to the nation; the colonial empire; the traditional family; private property; religion; the rural world; and, Western civilisation. I also highlight common aims (such as the rehabilitation of wartime collaborators) and tactics (such as the invocation of apoliticism). While acknowledging the importance of the Cold War, I reject the assumption that anticommunism was an American import or foreign to French society and demonstrate links between anticommunism and anti-Americanism. I conclude that anticommunism drew its strength from the connection or even conflation of communism with perceived negative social changes and consequences of modernity that were seen to threaten traditional French civilisation, interacting with the postwar international and domestic environment and the personal experiences of individual anticommunists.

This thesis seeks to understand the origins, development, and consequences of the carceral turn in American public education. Specifically, it considers how and why New York City came to deploy a vast force of police officers and security personnel, install sophisticated surveillance equipment, and put into place a set of highly punitive disciplinary policies that govern student behavior. Drawing from more than 40 different archives as well as 20 original oral histories, it maintains that school policing and student discipline have historically served as tools of social control and racial dominance, emerging with the very founding of organized education in America, and expanding most rapidly and dramatically as a direct response to the prospect of desegregated schooling and the attendant rupture in American life. In the wake of this conflict, the carceral apparatus was not only linked with, but institutionalized into, the public education system. Opposition to school desegregation, panic over the issue of juvenile delinquency, and white fears of Black criminality were mutually constitutive and jointly reinforcing - coming to a head in the mid-twentieth century and continuing to build upon each other throughout the ensuing decades towards a comprehensive system in the schools of exclusion, punishment, and arrest. On the level of both individual institutions and the education system as a whole, as more Black students enrolled in schools and flipped the demographics from predominantly white to predominantly Black, city and school officials increasingly met even ordinary student problems with carceral responses. City schools instituted sweeping disciplinary policies, forged partnerships with the municipal police department, and created security forces of their own as part of a larger system of student criminalization that both reflected and exacerbated existing social and racial hierarchies, stifled student organizing, and expanded the reach and power of the carceral state.

This dissertation explores how American state governments adapted to governing in a new kind of federal union in the three decades following the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. Although existing political histories generally pay only anecdotal attention to the activities of state governments in the early national period, this thesis demonstrates that the creation and implementation of national policy was significantly shaped by interactions between state and federal officials. Minimal manpower and vast distances limited the capacity of the federal government to enforce its own laws across the nation, leaving the federal executive and Congress reliant on the support of state officials and institutions in the implementation of federal policies within the states. The line between state and federal areas of responsibility under the Constitution was often unclear, and the question of which government had the right to legislate in which policy area arose frequently. While state and federal officials regularly disagreed with one another about the interpretation of federal laws and of the Constitution, they learned to resolve these conflicts through negotiation, in most cases avoiding formal litigation. I denominate this pattern of interactions 'co-ordinated federalism.' On the basis of archival research in five states, this dissertation builds an administrative history of early American federalism, investigating the impact of intergovernmental interactions on the making and execution of national policies concerning trade and finance, national defence, Indian affairs, and slavery. An introductory chapter summarizes the principal mechanisms by which the state and federal governments conducted their ongoing negotiations, and explores the roles of state governors and legislators in producing regulations, resolutions, and remonstrances designed to influence federal policy. While state governments generally co-operated in the enforcement of federal law, even where it was highly controversial, their considerable capacity for independent action could also pose a threat to the success of federal policies.

Over more than two centuries, Christian missionaries laboured to convert Indians across early America. The effect on Indian individuals, communities, and nations has been emphasised in recent scholarship on the religious encounter; this thesis focuses instead on the reciprocal effects on the missionaries themselves. The religious encounter in early America had profound and varied effects on missionaries in each space that they claimed. Letters, speeches, and publications produced by Jesuits, Franciscans, and Puritans are analysed as discursive spaces through which missionaries interrogated, adapted, and added to the complex of concepts, paradigms and strategies that guided their evangelical endeavour. This thesis traces the subsequent evolution of their respective missiologies in New France, the Spanish borderlands, and New England, a process understood as inextricable from the broader dynamism of Indian and colonial power. Through a deliberate process of manipulation by the missionaries themselves, all three missiologies were localised as early American phenomena, suitable to the colonial spaces that members of each tradition encountered on the continent. Then, from the early-eighteenth century, those who continued to articulate the logic of missionization in each region began expressing common missiological themes, finally forging a continental, early American philosophy of mission. These successful transformations of each missiological tradition sustained missions as institutions promoting imperial-colonial, diplomatic and commercial interests; the conclusions of this thesis therefore necessitate analysing the history of colonialism across the continent as, in part, shaped by the dynamic intellectual response of Jesuits, Franciscans and Puritans to the early American cultural encounter.

Situated at the intersection of gender and sensory histories, this thesis asks how it felt to move through the world as a woman in Paris or St Petersburg at the dawn of the twentieth century. Its primary focus is how women lived their lives: how they inhabited their bodies, their daily encounters with the material and built environments of the city in which they lived, and how they understood their world through the senses. Across three extended case studies of visuality, aurality, and hapticity, this thesis argues that gender was pivotal in shaping women's sensory experiences. Drawing on a kaleidoscope of sources, it spotlights key moments and arenas of sensation in women's lives between 1900 and 1913, encompassing diverse examples of consumer culture, technological innovation, leisure activities and the arts, and the management of women's bodies. These sensory encounters constituted 'feminine feelings' in that they were experienced predominantly by women, but also in the sense that they produced (and projected) an image of femininity, rendering tangible an understanding of one's own identity as a woman. This project has two principal aims: one historical, the other methodological. Firstly, it broadens our understanding of the sensual specificities of women's lives at a particular historical moment. Secondly, it proposes a dual lens of gender and sensory histories as a novel and productive approach to questions of subjectivity, identity, and embodiment. In working to unpick and elaborate the reciprocal relationship between gender and sensation, this research makes a significant contribution to both fields within the historical discipline. Ultimately, this thesis connects the somatic experience of individual women to the wider social and cultural trends of the early twentieth century, demonstrating how material developments and shifting attitudes impacted women's habits, bodies, self-perception, and sensory encounters.

This dissertation is an analysis of the development of natural theology in early modern Spain. It examines the definitions and uses of natural theology that occurred within Spanish Catholicism, 1436-1825. This dissertation makes three main arguments: firstly, that the modern parameters of natural theology are ahistorical and insufficient to understanding the term's history; secondly, that the development of natural theology in early modern Spain was contextually determined and distinct from other forms; and thirdly, that understanding these historical contexts and the formation of natural theology reveals new ways of understanding the relationship between theology, philosophy, and the natural sciences. The parameters of natural theology in early modern Spain were constantly redefined, influenced by ideas about human nature, the intelligibility of the natural world, the noetic effects of sin and the capabilities of human reason, the credibility of experimentalism and observation in the natural sciences, and the authority granted to the Church and to Scripture. As these notions were reshaped in Spain, new and alternative ideas about the scope and legitimacy of natural theology arose. As a result, natural theologies varied in purpose; for example, natural theology was used alternatively throughout the period for evangelization, apologetics, catechesis, and devotion or worship. This dissertation explores the historical causes for these variations. It challenges scholars of historical theology to recognize a wider definition and use of natural theology. It reconceptualizes the historiography of early modern intellectual history by showing how natural theology was directly related to philosophical and scientific endeavors in the Spanish mentality. Finally, it suggests new ways of developing the "new natural theology" in contemporary discussions. The dissertation incorporates original and archival research of dozens of works from the early modern Iberian world, and consists of an introduction, five chapters, and a conclusion.

Since the early 2000s, intellectual historians have increasingly emphasised that Enlightenment and revealed religion could be reconciled, contradicting traditional depictions. A growing body of scholarship on the so-called 'religious Enlightenment' - spanning Catholicism, Judaism, and Protestantism - has developed as a result of this shift. However, the attempts to subsume the enlightened representatives of all faiths into one supra-confessional Enlightenment has gradually confused the understanding of 'enlightened religion', especially in the Protestant context. To counter this development, this thesis seeks to re-establish the existence of a particular and uniform Protestant Enlightenment that spanned Anglicanism, German Lutheranism, and Swedish Lutheranism during the 'Long Eighteenth Century'. To this end, it presents an intellectual and cultural history of enlightened theology within these Churches, based on the existing historiography and its foundational texts and figures: first, it offers a comparative analysis of the theologies of Ralph Cudworth, Henry More, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Joseph Butler, and Johann Joachim Spalding. It thereupon examines the reception of their theologies in Swedish Lutheranism through the correspondences of Eric Benzelius the Younger and Jacob Axelsson Lindblom's periodical Journal för Prester. Based on this, the thesis argues that - certain differences notwithstanding - there was a recognisable single Protestant Enlightenment whose quintessential hallmark was an intellectualist natural theology that emphasised the fundamental benevolence of God and the harmony of the universe, as well as the fundamental freedom and reasonableness of humanity. Mostly emerging as a result of 'crises of orthodoxy' that made stringent confessional uniformity untenable, this creed built on Platonic-Erasmian foundations and the seventeenth century's scientifico-philosophical advances. While rejecting much of the Reformation's Augustinian ideas, it was nonetheless distinctly Protestant in character by professing an individualistic, emancipatory faith that appealed to Anglicans and Lutherans alike. Indeed, by the eighteenth century's close, it had in parts morphed into a self-conscious movement.