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This thesis attends to the place of paper in early modern literature, both in actuality and in imaginary form. While a conventional set of (often gendered) tropes holds paper to be passive, blank, and static, these four chapters attend to texts and sites which resist those tropes, and which foreground paper's role as an intellectual-material site that is both agentic and mobile. Paperscapes: Navigating Books in Early Modern England fuses literary scholarship, bibliography, and book history to engage with the affordances of paper as textual substrate and material form. The structure of this thesis foregrounds paper on the move. The chapters focus on the paper volvelles that direct readers around George Wither's Collection of Emblemes (1635), whose verse enables spiritual as well as bibliographic modes of navigation; on the stories that imprints tell about paper's journeys through the city, which collide with the textual routes of James Howell's Londinopolis (1657); on the moving sheets and books which trouble the rhetoric of Samuel Pepys' aspirationally static library; and on the global narratives of circulation in which John Taylor's The Praise of Hempseed (1620) implicates paper. Paperscapes takes its structure from actual sites through which paper moves - the book, the city, the library, and the globe - while simultaneously asserting that paper as substrate makes room for the texts in which imaginary journeys of readers and books play out. Reading early modern printed texts was and is to encounter paper in a contingent place and form. Noting both that paper moves around, and that place matters for how we read, this thesis argues that the mobility of paper has literary implications in unsettling the meaning of text. Paperscapes reverses the suggestion that 'text is more legible than its substrate', and provides a paper counterpoint to the codex which is grounded both in material readings and in the early modern imagination.

Previous research on paper history has tended to be conducted from an economic perspective and/or as part of the field of book history within a broadly literary framework. This has resulted in understandings of paper history being book-centric and focused on production. We now have a great deal of knowledge about the physical process of hand paper-making, a good knowledge of the actors involved and where in the country paper was manufactured, but there is still very little scholarly discussion of the people, processes and practices associated with paper outside of the mill. Taking inspiration from eighteenth-century ‗it-narratives‘, this thesis takes a holistic approach to the paper trade – loosely based around the framework of social life theory as expounded by Arjun Appadurai and Igor Kopytoff. It encompasses a case study of the rag-collection and paper-wholesale operations of a single Edinburgh firm, a wider examination of paper-retailing in Edinburgh, a look at the ownership of desks in Edinburgh alongside a consideration of advice and instruction relating to desk-use, and closes with an examination of the papers owned by a notable Edinburgh family. The first three chapters consider the scope of the Edinburgh paper trade. Moving through distinct stages in the life of paper, these chapters begin with an account of the Edinburgh rag-trade. Business records relating to the Balerno Company‘s rag-buying operations reveal an active and organised network with connections to a variety of trades. Continuing the focus on the Balerno Company, the second chapter considers the company as paper-wholesalers. It demonstrates that the driving force behind their operations was not the supply of paper for the booktrade but rather the provision of wrapping papers for the purposes of commerce. Using advertisements in local newspapers the third chapter looks at the reach of paper-selling beyond the booktrades. The final two chapters move gradually from the commercial to the personal. Chapter four considers the presentation of desk-use in penmanship manuals and the evidence of desk-ownership in confirmation inventories. Both of which are suggestive of a growing mercantile interest in desk furniture. Finally, this thesis closes by looking at the paper archives of the Innes family of Stow in order to examine the extent to which the findings of previous chapters is reflected in the collection, retention and use of papers across two generations of this family. Overall, this thesis demonstrates the value of adopting an inclusive approach to the study of paper history, as doing so opens up a multifaceted world of paper. Paper history has tended to be understood as the history of writing and printing paper sold by booksellers and stationers. The social life approach allows connections to be made between materials, artefacts and trades; to gain a fuller understanding of the role paper played in people‘s lives.

Previous studies of Bank Note forgery in England during the Bank Restriction Period have adopted a highly institutional focus. Thus, much is known about the role played by both the Bank of England and the workings of the criminal justice system in combating both forgers and forged note utterers. The question of how the new system of small denomination Bank Notes impacted upon the day to day lives and understandings of the people that used them has received far less attention. The actual means by which Bank Notes were themselves forged has also been overlooked. This has led to a somewhat two-dimensional view of these notes as material objects. This thesis will engage with common mentalities and perceptions, seeking to write a 'new history from below' of both Bank Notes and their forgery in this period. Its primary aims will be to explore the question of why the English people were so easily imposed upon by forged Bank Notes; the various means by which forged notes could be constructed; and what an analysis of both of these points can tell us about economic and social understandings of non-elite people at this time. It will be argued that by studying instances in which small denomination Bank Notes were routinely exchanged, we can highlight a significant dichotomy of understanding in a society that was starting to engage with a new culture of promise based fiduciary paper money, yet was still deeply rooted in early-modern notions of paper instruments as objects of personal credit and debt. The thesis will show that heavy exposure to Bank Notes at this time clearly equipped some contemporaries with their own personalised sets of aesthetic and material "standards", against which the "goodness" of any monetary instrument with which they were presented would be compared. Others continued to examine the material aspect of Bank Notes via a direct comparison or consultation with others. Neither approach was always successful and indeed whatever method was adopted, the common occurrence of the materials and technologies required to construct a credible imitation of a Bank Note meant that it was not just illiterate persons that were susceptible to being deceived. Even a reading of the Bank Note's literate text failed to provide sufficient defence against the activities of the forger.

The monitoring of electrolytes and charged biomolecules in body fluids is a crucial step in both the diagnosis and management of many diseases, including chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. Ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) are considered the gold standard in analyzing these analytes in clinical settings due to their high selectivity, near instant response time, and linear response. These ISEs are generally incorporated into a mainframe clinical blood analyzer which, due to the high cost, fragility, and need for trained staff to operate, are in centralized hospitals or laboratories. As a result, patients living in remote, or resource-limited areas often do not have access to such clinical diagnostics. There is, therefore, a need for point-of-care based ISEs, characterized by low-cost, high ease of use, and portability. Despite recent interest in the development of point-of-care based ISEs, there remain fundamental issues in the design and performance of these sensors, which I address in my research. This thesis presents work that supports the advancement of point-of-care based ISEs in several key areas.While paper has been proposed as a substrate for point-of-care sensors, it has impurities from manufacturing and being natural in origin. Moreover, its structure and surface composition are highly heterogeneous, which are disadvantageous when designing sensors for high reproducibility. In this work, I propose the use of a novel synthetic textile with higher purity and a more controlled structure to serve as a supporting substrate for miniaturized, membrane-free ISEs. To expand the versatility of these devices, I embedded both ion-sensing and reference membranes into the polyester fabric and successfully measured the activity of chloride (a highly relevant clinical biomarker) in aqueous solutions and 100% blood serum. This is the first example of an ISE that both embeds membranes into a fabric and uses the fabric to wick samples into contact with those membranes. I also determined the effect of pore structure on device performance, a finding applicable not only to textile-based ISEs, but also to other porous materials such as paper. I showed that devices fabricated on the textile had an order of magnitude improvement in the lower limit of detection (LOD) of chloride as compared to analogous paper-based devices. I also further the understanding of the sources of non-ideal performance in paper based ISEs through a systematic study of both sensor materials and interactions between materials and aqueous samples. While it has been suggested by many that these limitations are due to interactions of paper with sample or sensing components, to date this has not been thoroughly investigated. To this end, I studied interactions of target ions with paper by using a range of analytical techniques. My data shows two main reasons that explain the sub-optimal performance of paper-based devices for chloride sensing, which I explain and propose novel fabrication techniques to overcome. A key performance parameter in ISEs designed to be used outside of central laboratories is that of reproducibility, with the goal of calibration-free devices. Our group has previously improved sensor-to-sensor reproducibility with the use of redox buffers, which buffer redox-active impurities in the system. I propose the use of a novel cobalt(III/II)bis(terpyridine) as a hydrophilic redox buffer to be incorporated into the inner filling solution of ISEs for anion sensing. Conventional ISEs with a plasticized poly(vinyl)chloride ion-exchange membrane for Cl– and the redox buffer incorporated into the inner filling solution resulted in a E0 SD of 0.3 mV–one of the lowest reported SD thus far in the literature. The redox buffer was also found to be compatible with reference membranes as well as textile-based sensing setups. As the purpose for these devices is to be used in clinical diagnostics, it is also crucial to increase the number of analytes measured to include clinically relevant ions such as K+, Ca2+, and pH. I therefore also show the use of textile-based devices with ionophorecontaining membranes that selectively complex target ions. While a textile-based Ca2+ ISE was fabricated and successfully detected Ca2+ in aqueous samples, performance limitations arose in the detection of K+, H+, Ag+, and CO32-. A study of the effects of textile coating techniques and considerations of material-membrane interactions seek to address these shortcomings.

This study seeks to examine the specific circumstances surrounding the development of a trade in alfa, or esparto, grass, between Britain and southern Tunisia in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Beginning abruptly in 1871, within the space of ten years alfa grass had became not only the principal item of foreign trade in the south but also one of the whole country's most important exports. What differentiates the alfa trade from existing commercial activities in Tunisia at the time is that it was carried on between European merchants and the inhabitants of districts which were only marginally integrated into the political structures of the central government and the externally orientated market economy of the coastal and urban regions. A mainly pastoral and overwhelmingly subsistence orientated population, the tribes of south and central Tunisia were, on the surface, an unlikely labour force for the collection and sale of a plant which was laborious and time consuming to gather, and whose sale offered what were often extremely meagre returns. In attempting to understand and explain how and why a people, hitherto largely unconnected with and uninterested in direct, market orientated transactions within Tunisia, should enter into economic relations of such magnitude with European industrialists, the study has highlighted a number of interesting issues relating to the penetration of capitalism into what is commonly termed the periphery. Although many of the findings may be specific to Tunisia it is clear that the alfa trade there emerged as a result of a complex interplay of local, regional and international factors which had some surprising origins and some interesting results. Although fulfilling many of the criteria for Myint's "vent-for-surplus" theory of international trade, the alfa trade in Tunisia neither caused any far reaching social change nor did it result in any independent and self-sustaining economic development in the south of the country. Indeed the alfa trade helped mask, and undoubtedly prolonged, the growing economic and social crisis in southern Tunisia as the region underwent a painful integration into the developing national economy. With little to offer the country in terms of natural resources southern Tunisia was sucked dry of its surplus wealth yet deprived of any corresponding investment.

Abstract: Industrial decarbonization is a critical challenge along the pathway to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions at a sufficient scale and pace to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. The intrinsic energy- and emissions-intensive nature of heavy industry has led to the recognition that efforts to change the profile of industrial energy use could play a major role in meeting this challenge. This concept, defined broadly as industrial energy efficiency, encompasses a category of technology solutions such as process improvements, equipment upgrades, and fuel switching within sector boundaries. These and other efficiency technologies are notable for their potential to lower industrial emissions while improving (rather than reducing) competitiveness. Robust analysis of the costs and benefits of efficiency as a comprehensive technology suite can help to overcome known barriers to adoption including poor awareness of efficiency opportunities and perceptions of high risk for efficiency investments. Understanding the impacts of efficiency can also be beneficial to policymakers by identifying effective emissions reduction pathways. The overall objective of this thesis is to develop a novel method for fully characterizing the techno-economic potential of industrial energy efficiency and in-sector fuel switching as solutions for energy savings and emissions reductions. This thesis demonstrates application of the method to the case study of the Canadian pulp and paper sector. To achieve the objective of this thesis, a technology-explicit energy and GHG emissions modelling and analysis framework was developed based on best practices for studies of energy efficiency and resource potential. The framework integrates a bottom-up sector energy model with a comprehensive database of energy efficiency technologies validated against data from actual projects in industry. Analysis of efficiency measures was linked to the sector energy model at the point of end-use secondary energy consumption, enabling more realistic representation of how efficiency technologies can impact final energy use. Technology-explicit applicability factors and iterative, cumulative analysis techniques were used to capture the expected impacts of measure overlap, interference, and diminishing returns so as to not overestimate the effects of all measures acting in parallel. Energy savings bandwidths and cost of saved energy curves were developed to characterize the energy savings potential associated with efficiency. Energy-driven GHG emissions abatement scenarios were then developed and analyzed within a Canada-wide energy and emissions model over a long-term planning horizon at both the sector and system level. Marginal GHG abatement cost curves were produced to provide insights into the most impactful and cost-effective technologies over the study period. The key findings of this work demonstrate that natural gas, biomass, and net electricity consumption in the Canadian pulp and paper sector could be reduced by 95%, 1%, and 41%, respectively, via adoption of economically viable efficiency technologies at current energy prices. Achieving this potential would significantly improve sector competitiveness by bringing it into alignment with international energy intensity benchmarks and by dramatically reducing energy costs. At current production levels, efficiency in the pulp and paper sector could reduce net demand for natural gas and electricity by 71 PJ/year and 44 PJ/year, respectively. Energy efficiency was also found to have significant potential as a tool for reducing GHG emissions. The annual GHG emissions abatement associated with economical efficiency measures was estimated to be 3.6 MtCO2e (46%) by 2030 and 4.9 MtCO2e (66%) by 2050 relative to business as usual. Accounting for the technical potential of all measures increases the abatement potential to 6.2 MtCO2e in 2050. Over the study period, energy efficiency was found to reduce cumulative sector GHG emissions by 107.6 MtCO2e (42%) through 2050 at a weighted average abatement cost of -$162/tCO2e. When considering system-level effects, the cumulative abatement rises by 44% to 155.6 MtCO2e through 2050. The results presented in this thesis provide a clear indication to industry and policymakers that energy efficiency could be the single most important technology solution to achieve emissions reduction targets at low or negative cost while enhancing pulp and paper sector competitiveness. The novel framework developed in this thesis can be adapted to any other jurisdiction or sector to produce similar insights. Further work is needed to determine how best to achieve the potential associated with industrial energy efficiency so that it can take a leading role in the transition to a prosperous low-carbon economy.

The emerging demands for healthcare where access is limited due to political, environmental, or socio-economic factors have been driving research into bio-medical devices that perform in both diagnostic and therapeutic roles at lower costs and greater accessibility. Paper microfluidic devices are used in many applications, particularly medical diagnostics and offer an excellent combination of utility and low cost making them particularly valuable in resource-limited applications and point-of-care usage across a wide variety environmental conditions. Microfluidic biological diagnostics continue to mature as researchers discover new ways to exploit the technological possibilities, and address liabilities. The increasing complexity of paper-based microfluidic devices beyond home pregnancy tests is driving the need to produce new tools and methodologies that enable more robust biological diagnostics and potential therapeutic applications. However, the process of developing new paper microfluidic devices is limited due to having to manually design and fabricate designs to research. Often, researchers must design scores of different devices to find a combination of parameters that functions as expected. In this work, a novel software framework to support automated development of paper-based microfluidic devices is introduced to facilitate both research and fabrication to accelerate the investigative process and reduce material utilization and manpower. Unlike to existing lab-on-a-chip technologies, paper-based microfluidics differs in terms of substrate technologies and use a passive flow method to deliver fluids and reagents for assays. While numerous analogies between microfluidics and semiconductor technologies have been espoused, the physical differences between the fluid dynamics and electrical current are significant which suggests that current trends in physical design for microfluidics must change course in order to be of practical use to designers. Within this framework, a methodology is introduced to address design automation such as dynamically placing and routing microfluidic components in a non-discrete design space while avoiding invalid design layouts, accounting for fluid volume usage, surface area utilization, and the timing required to perform specified biological assays and also optimizing device parameters, enabling researchers to focus on the science and thereby accelerating the development of new, low-resource paper microfluidic devices for a developing world.

In a comparative forensic analysis, an examiner can report that a physical fit exists between two torn or separated items when they realign in a manner unlikely to be replicated. Due to the common belief that it is unlikely that two unrelated fractured objects would match with distinctive characteristics, a physical fit represents the highest degree of association between two items. Nonetheless, despite the probative value that this evidence could have to a trier of fact, few studies have demonstrated such assumptions' scientific validity and reliability. Moreover, there is a lack of consensus-based standard protocols for physical fit comparisons, making it difficult to demonstrate the basis for the features that constitute a “fit.” Since these analyses rely entirely on human judgment, they are highly subjective, which could be problematic in the absence of harmonized examination and interpretation criteria protocols. As a result, organizations like the National Institute of Justice and NIST-OSAC have identified the need for developing standardized methods and assessing potential error sources in this field. This research aims to address these gaps as applied to physical fits of textiles and paper. Here, standard criteria and prominent features for each material are defined to conduct physical fit examinations in a more reproducible manner. Additionally, a quantitative metric is used to quantify what constitutes a physical fit when conducting comparative analyses of textiles and paper, further increasing the validity and reliability of this methodology and providing a manner of assessing the weight of this evidence when presented in the courtroom. The first aim of this research involved the development of an objective and systematic method of quantifying the similarity between fractured textile samples. This was done by identifying relevant macroscopic and microscopic characteristics in the comparative analysis of a fractured textile dataset. Additionally, factors that affect the suitability of certain types of textiles for physical fit analysis were evaluated. Finally, the systematic score metric was implemented to quantify and document the quality of a physical fit and estimate error rates. The second objective of this study consisted of establishing the scientific foundations of individuality concerning the orientation of microfibers in fractured paper edges. In comparative analysis of paper, it is assumed that the microfibers deposited across the surface of paper are randomly oriented, a key feature for addressing the individuality of paper physical fits. However, this hypothesis has not been tested. This research evaluated the rarity and occurrence of microfiber alignments on fractured documents. It also quantified the comparative features of scissor-cut and hand-torn paper and the respective performance rates. Finally, the comparative analysis of textile and paper physical fits was validated through ground truth datasets and inter-examiner and intra-examiner variability studies. A ground truth blind dataset of known fits and known non-fits was created for 700 textile samples with various fiber types, weave patterns, and separation methods. Also, a set of 260 paper items, including 100 stamps and 160 office paper samples, were examined. The paper specimens contained handwritten or printed entries on two paper types and were separated by scissor-cut or hand-torn methods. This proposed research provides the criminal justice system with a valuable body of knowledge and a more objective and methodical assessment of the evidential value of physical fits of textiles, paper, and postage stamps.

This dissertation argues that the material qualities of paper had a direct and significant impact on the development of English and Dutch national identities through the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Affordable, accessible texts played a critical role in disseminating concepts of nationhood among early modern elites and non-elites alike. Cheap publications, however, required cheap paper. Unlike the creamy white sheets of high-end paper destined for magisterial tomes, cheap paper was brown, thin, and ephemeral. The disposability of affordable paper necessarily colored the reception of the text printed upon it, and shaped the ways readers made sense of emerging nationalized structures. Each chapter of this project examines a different category of affordable print, their tactics for molding a sense of national cohesion, and the ways the materiality of the paper they are printed on complicated their intended message. Chapter one looks at how the ephemerality of political broadsides and pamphlets allowed readers to revise personal attitudes regarding international antagonism during the first two Anglo-Dutch wars. The second chapter analyzes almanacs and how the conditions of their production produced locally flavored iterations of national identities. Chapter three examines the way in which abundant paper fostered the emergence of travel writing as popular literature and how parodies of the genre challenged common assumptions of national belonging. The final chapter zeros in on one book, Het Groote Tafereel der Dwaasheid, and the ways its graphic satires use paper’s physical lightness, to explain and critique the financial collapse of 1720.

The goal of this dissertation is to develop a paper-based mass spectrometry (MS) ionization method for detection of small molecules from biological fluids and water samples. In biofluids, highly sensitive analytical methods are required to monitor small biologically active molecules during treatment. When analyzing both biofluids and industrial water samples, rapid and inexpensive detection platforms streamline screening for harmful concentrations of chemicals. Paper spray ionization shortens analysis time to less than one minute.Current analytical detection methods for these molecules include gas chromatography (GC)-MS, which is useful for creating databases for small molecules. However, GC-MS often requires extensive sample preparation and analyte derivatization prior to analysis. Liquid chromatography (LC)-MS offers better sensitivity without the need for derivatization. However, LC-MS is also limited by additional sample preparation/handling procedures. In particular, matrix components must be removed prior to any chromatographic work, which can be time consuming. For these reasons, immunoassay screening is still the most commonly used detection method for these small molecules despite their well-recognized limitations with regards to sensitivity and selectivity. Alternatively, paper spray (PS) ionization MS is capable of direct analysis of small biological sample volumes. However, PS often suffers from low sensitivity due to inefficient extraction.The second chapter in this document utilizes treated hydrophobic paper substrates prepared by a gas-phase silanization reaction. Hydrophobic PS utilizes online liquid/liquid extraction from a drop of biological fluid without drying steps or sample pretreatment, which is applicable in point-of-care analyses. Preliminary experiments demonstrated high sensitivity in the analysis of drugs cocaine, benzoylecgonine, methamphetamine, and amphetamine in 4 μL of raw blood, serum, and urine. When the sample is dried, a 3-dimensional dried spheroid is formed, as opposed to a dried blood spot. This spheroid decreases interaction between the bulk of the blood sample and ambient air, decreasing oxidative stress, increasing the lifetime of the analyte in the sample. Experiments show that labile organic compounds diazepam and cocaine have increased stability up to 28 days, where sample signal decreases by 90% within a day when stored in dried blood spots.The third chapter discusses the use of wax printing on paper. Wax printing creates microfluidic channels in which the designer can control solvent flow. Through this solvent control, spray time was increased from 1.5 minutes to 10 minutes. Additionally, because the solvent acts as the charge carrier, manipulation of the electric field decreased the required voltage applied to the paper triangle from 3-5 kV to 0.5-1 kV.The fourth chapter outlines the detection of low concentration corrosion inhibitor Duomeen O and molluscicide metaldehyde in industrial and environmental water samples. On-site analysis of Duomeen O would facilitate the maintaining of appropriate levels to prevent corrosion in water tube boiler plants. Because metaldehyde is readily soluble in water, runoff during periods of heavy rainfall ultimately introduces metaldehyde into drinking water. Paper spray ionization has been demonstrated as a viable technique for rapid screening and quantification of these molecules without sample preconcentration with detection limits below the threshold set by the World Health Organization.

Sorghum is a tall grass used for many commercial products such as fodder and syrup. The 10 to 15 feet stalk of the plant has lower lignin than wood and provides a fiber length of 2.31 mm in the outer covering and 1.38 mm for the leaf. Sorghum fiber makes a high quality, strong paper suitable for printing, packaging and paperboard.

El entorno actual y los cambios en el paradigma comunicativo en los últimos diez años conducen a pensar que nos encontramos en un momento de transición que implica el fin de los medios de masas, tal como han concluido diversas investigaciones. De ellos, el producto que se presenta más vulnerable es el diario impreso, cuya desaparición plantea pocas dudas. Sin embargo, inmersos en ese momento de cambio, aún no podemos evaluar qué significa la pérdida de un modelo periodístico que ha permanecido dos siglos y medio como referente informativo. Desde esta perspectiva, la provincia de Cuenca, en Castilla-La Mancha, una de las dos en España que en la actualidad ya no cuenta con periódico en papel, brinda un escenario único para abordar qué tipo de medio lidera hoy en su lugar. A través de una metodología mixta que se basa en la revisión de fuentes documentales y en el análisis de contenido, abordamos un estudio de caso que pretende extraer tendencias de lo que supone esa migración hacia el entorno digital en lo que concierne a los medios de proximidad. En este caso, el paso de un soporte a otro ha devaluado algunos géneros periodísticos relevantes, como la fotonoticia o el editorial, pero también prácticas que han sido centrales en el periodismo, como la labor de edición sobre el material que llega a la redacción.

For my final year at Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), I worked on my thesis film, “Face 2 Face,” which runs for 6 minutes and 22 seconds. My thesis film tells the story of a young man attending a Comic-Con convention who spends more time taking photos of what he sees in front of him for his social media page rather than living in the moment within his environment. This film was inspired by my experiences at conventions and on vacations, during which I devoted much of my energy to recording footage of unique events or taking photos of an unfamiliar area to the neglect of truly experiencing my environment. “Face 2 Face” is a comedic portrayal of similar experiences and frustrations in a setting with which I am familiar. I wanted to create a film focusing on a habit I found relatable and use it as the springboard for a comedic story. In terms of the main production, the film relies on hand-drawn animation and appears in full color. The animation was primarily completed in TVPaint with additional visual work done in Adobe After Effects and Adobe Premiere. I also took advantage of outside help for animation and sound during film production, especially with regard to cleanup, coloring, voice acting, sound effects, and music. This paper describes the writing process for the film along with the film’s visual development. I also discuss various obstacles and accomplishments throughout the project.

1,2-Indanedione is the most sensitive amino acid reagent currently used for developing latent fingermarks on porous substrates (D’Elia et. al 2015). Indanedione has been termed a “dual” reagent meaning that the reaction product is both coloured and photoluminescent, which facilitates improved contrast compared to the background and increased sensitivity (Patton et al. 2010). Latent fingermarks are fragile traces of evidence that must be protected. In addition, other forms of physical evidence may be present on a document, such as DNA, writing inks, printing inks, and toners. Physical factors such as heat and diffusion, along with chemical factors such as the effects of solvents, can compromise the evidence that may be present (Lennard et al, 2011). One of the most problematic sample substrates that has emerged over the years is thermal, heat-sensitive paper, which is most commonly used for sales receipts, tickets and in fax machines. Solvent-less methods such as vacuum development and dry transfer methods have become an area of research interest due to the potential for traditional methods to be destructive to fingerprints themselves or other forensic evidence. Currently the traditional method is purely lab-based; whilst the exploration into solvent-less techniques follows the green chemistry trend it also aids laboratories that don’t have the potential to store and apply large amounts of solvents. Presently, the only paper that has been published on vacuum indanedione development is from Swofford et al. (2012). The advantages of using vacuum sublimation for indanedione treatment in particular includes no interference with foreign contaminants in the fingermarks (such as illicit drugs or explosives) or diffusion of ink on the document, and it does not interfere with any traces of DNA that may be present. Indanedione was also found to be the only chemical out of the seven that were tested not to interfere with forensic document examination (Swofford et al., 2012). An alternative application method that is solvent-free is referred to as “dry-transfer” (Patton et al. 2010). Patton et al. (2010) successfully developed coloured, photoluminescent fingermarks on thermal paper using the dry transfer method for indanedione. However, there seems to be no studies conducted on aged samples, as well as the inconsistencies between dry transfer methods for thermal paper and whether heat should be applied or not. Results were generated presented from a comparison of the three application methods – conventional, vacuum and dry-transfer – across a range of paper substrates and for aged fingermarks from several donors. Several proof-of-concept experiments were also conducted using vacuum indanedione treatment on a number of semi-porous and non-porous surfaces. The results overall concluded that the conventional method outperformed, both in terms of colouration and luminescence, the vacuum indanedione method and the drytransfer method; however, fingermarks of the same quality were produced in some cases. The vacuum oven method on non-porous surfaces produced some encouraging results and certainly shows promise for future work. The additional proof-of-concept work involving co-fuming indanedione and cyanoacrylate was also successful.

Chemical analysis of paper-based electronic sensors is frequently interpreted using complex software and electronic displays which compromises the advantages of using paper. The ultimate aim of this PhD project is to develop simple and versatile paper-based readout systems that could directly convert the electrical signal into colour visualisation and later progress towards an integrated sensing device combining a readout system, a sensor and battery. The research starts with developing two semi-quantitative paper-based readout systems that can visually measure a change in resistance of a resistive-based sensor. The readout system exploits the electrochromic concept and also the effect of voltage gradient generation along a low-resistive gold nanoparticle film upon application of voltage. Due to this phenomenon, the electrochromic material changes colour along the gold nanoparticle film where the voltage is at the redox potential of the electrochromic materials. Hence, the resistance of the sensor can be semi-quantified by measuring the length of the transparent film (analog readout) or by counting the number of transparent gold segments (digital readout). The concept of displaying an electrical signal colorimetrically is validated by integrating an improved type of digital readout system, a piezoresistive pressure sensor and battery for developing a lightweight device for measuring bandage compression. A new type of piezoresistive pressure sensor is fabricated using an optimised mixture of irregular-shaped copper particles, polydimethylsiloxane and carbon paste. Through this integration, the pressure applied to the sensor can be visualised by counting the number of transparent gold nanoparticle segments in the readout system. The integration of a piezoresistive pressure sensor and readout system is extended for developing “balance-in-a-box” to determine the weight of a newborn baby. A new concept of tuning the resistive properties of the readout is introduced to change the critical weight value in which the gold segment changes colour. The significance of this work is that various desired reading ranges can be obtained while using the same type of pressure sensor. The last part of the study addresses the adaptability of the readout system for a chemical sensor, in particular a pH potentiometric paper-based sensor. Overall, these integrated sensing devices have paved the way for use in situations where weight is a premium or a simple colour reading will suffice.