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Labour force landscape in Malaysia has grown significantly due to development of the country since the era of independence. The most noticeable change in the aspect of labour force participation is that women's labour force participation is growing not only in Malaysia but also around the world. Rapid developments in the usage of cutting-edge technology, as well as the range of skills that companies demand, have resulted in a more dynamic and competitive workplace. However, the key issue that has not been addressed as the labour market grows is gender wage differential. Various theories and findings have been presented to unravel these issues. In fact, this issue also has a place in high-level forum including United Nation. The wage model is estimated using a pooled model and separate model of gender based on secondary data from the Salaries and Wages Survey, 2018 from Department of Statistics Malaysia. The OLS results suggest that demographic factors, human capital aspects and job characteristics play a significant role in assessing the gender wage difference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the topic of pay inequity, with a particular focus on how it impacts on women working in the UK today. Theoretical and methodological gaps exist across the literature, which to date have focussed on quantitative approaches to hypothesis connected to (i) equity theory (Adams, 1965; Homans, 1958), (ii) the gender pay gap (Olson, 2013; Metcalf, 2009; Rubery, 2015) and (iii) equal pay law (The Equal Pay Act, 1970). This study seeks to address these gaps by taking a feminist and qualitative approach to the collection of narratives that describe the lived experience of female pay inequity victims. Semi-structured interviews are used to collect the rich narratives and unique perceptions of women who have experienced this phenomenon for themselves, and provides us with deep insights into the events, behaviours and perceptions that surround their experiences (Blaikie, 2007; Oakley, 1981). This paper provides justification for the methodological approach, and how it has been used to address the gaps in our knowledge that are preventing the theoretical advancement of the topic. As this study is currently in the data collection and analysis phase for a PhD project, no findings are presented in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using statistical literacy in a data driven society to critically examine and question is imperative for students to become active and informed citizens. Using a framework adapted from Gal (2002), this study examines the use of critical statistical literacy within online discussion board posts of eight undergraduate students taking introductory statistics. The results indicate that the majority of students (75%) exhibited critical statistical literacy across all discussion prompts. The overwhelming expression of active citizenry demonstrates the potential that discussions boards have to bolster engagement, increase interest, and stimulate reflective thinking within introductory statistics courses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Level of postsecondary schooling and field of study remain significant markers of social stratification. However, the combined influence these various types of postsecondary schooling have on the labour market outcomes for male and female graduates is unknown. Drawing on data from the 2013 National Graduates Survey, we examine the employment status and gender gap in earnings among recent male and female graduates at different levels of postsecondary education and various fields of study, three years after graduation. The findings indicate substantial gender disparities in employment status across all types of postsecondary schooling. The gender gap in earnings is also highest among trades and community college graduates, but effectively disappears for graduates with earned doctorate degrees. With respect to field of study, the gender wage gap is smallest among liberal arts graduates and largest among graduates with education related credentials. The policy implications associated with these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For decades, there has been a consensus that marriage benefits men's hourly wages. The main explanation has been gender role specialization within the household. Recent evidence, however, challenged this view suggesting that there is no causal marital wage premium (MWP) for men in the United States (Ludwig and Brüderl 2018, Killewald and Lundberg 2017). These authors showed that such a premium is spurious and most likely due to selection processes in the marriage market. In this paper we argue that this critique of the MWP applies to the literature on family related wage gaps ("family premiums") more generally. To this end, we broaden the study by Ludwig and Brüderl (2018) in two ways: First, we extend their analysis to European countries. We use long-lasting panel studies from the U.S., the U.K, Switzerland, West Germany, and East Germany. With pooled OLS (POLS) we find a large and significant MWP in all five countries. With conventional fixed-effects estimation (FE) the MWP is reduced in all countries. Finally, using an extended fixed-effects model that allows for individual-specific constants and slopes (FEIS) the MWP vanishes in all countries. These results demonstrate that the MWP is not causal, but most likely due to selection of men with steeper wage growth into marriage. Second, we ask whether similar results obtain for other family transitions like cohabitation and fatherhood. Previous literature using FE reported premiums for these family transitions. We also find such family premiums in most countries which, however, disappear when we use FEIS. Thus, it seems that also these family premiums are not causal but are spurious. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As higher education has expanded over time, horizontal stratification in education attainment has become a significant issue. A critical dimension of interest centers on differences in labor market outcomes by fields of study. We use several panels of the Survey of Income and Program Participation matched to longitudinal tax information to estimate the lifecycle earnings pattern by field of study for individuals in the baby boom cohort. A key question addresses the extent to which the earnings gaps by fields of study vary at different points of the distribution using a quantile regression approach. We find evidence that the earnings gap by fields of study are not constant across the distribution. Among bachelor degree holders, fields of study tended to have greater earnings effects at lower quantiles. The earnings gap between less lucrative majors, such as liberal arts, with majors associated with higher earnings, such as STEM, increased at lower quantiles and narrowed systematically toward the higher quantiles. Among graduate degree holders, the earnings gap associated with lucrative fields such as law and MBA increased at the higher quantiles. The results also show relatively stable patterns over prime-age working years, but there are several noticeable changes when younger and older stages are compared. The implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large body of literature describes the occupational gender wage gap at the national labor market level as well as in specific occupations. Yet, among those studies of withinoccupational inequality, few have focused on how occupational change affects gender wage inequality. With an increasing number of female workers entering into the labor force of the criminal justice system as well as the high turnover rate in police sector, it is important to explore wage changes in this highly-unionized and hyper-masculine occupation. Using two-wave panel data from the Current Population Survey Merged Outgoing Rotation Group (CPS-MORG) from 1979 to 2016, this study examines how change in occupational status along with change in union membership may lead to different wage rewards or penalties for male and female police officers. Individuals experience a large increase in wages when joining the police occupation and this wage bonus is greater for females rather males. Furthermore, individuals joining the police as well as the unions see a wage bonus but wage loss when leaving the police and unions, but males have a larger wage loss than females when leaving the police force and losing union membership. Implications of the findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantial research has examined the compensation gap between men and women. We investigate whether such a gap exists for school principals, how the gap has changed over time, and the degree to which it may be explained by characteristics of male and female principals and the schools in which they work. We analyze two sources of data: detailed longitudinal personnel records covering all school principals in the state of Missouri from 1991 to 2016, and repeated cross-sections from the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS). We find evidence of significant gender gaps in principals' salaries in both datasets. In Missouri, female principals are paid about $2,350 less than similar men leading the same school in another year. In the national dataset relying on salary self-reports in SASS, we observe an adjusted gender pay gap of about $900. These differentials are important as they accrue and compound over the course of one's career. We also find that school characteristics explain some of the female gap, particularly the sorting of women into lower-paid elementary school leadership positions. Beyond differences in individual characteristics and school sorting, we find evidence that male principals may work slightly longer hours and move across districts more often than female principals. However, these differences explain little of the observed salary gap. Finally, we find no evidence that women close the pay gap with men when they work for a female superintendent. Our findings raise concerns, as they suggest that demand-side drivers of pay gaps, i.e., gender-based discrimination, persist even in a public-sector profession that is often governed by set salary schedules. Pay differentials also have potential implications for female representation in school leadership, which may be dampened by under-rewarding women for their work and creating disincentives for women to enter or remain in such positions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the relationship between wage income and education in the light of the income inequality against women. The data used in the study isobtained through household budget survey by the Turkish Statistical Institute between 2002 and 2013. To determine the relationship between income and education and the pattern of the income distribution, ten income quantiles which represent mean wage income and duration of education (years) by gender are evaluated. Panel data regression is applied by using the percentage change in wage income and duration of education (years)to investigate how gender wage gap is affected by education. According to result, the relationship between education and wage for women is weaker than that of men. Also, mean values are assessed for each income quantiles to highlight the pattern of the relationship in terms of women's situation in labor market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influences of wage differentials are an often-discussed topic in the field of compensation research. This conference paper describes substantial literature which investigated the influence of wage dispersion on team performance (productivity). The literature focusing on these effects offers a broad variety of different results. They cover the whole spectrum from a not significant to a significant non-linear relationship. When evaluating these findings, no definite conclusion can be drawn on the question if wage dispersion is beneficial to team performance or not. Future research has to be done to shed more light on this field of research. The majority of the discussed papers use sports research settings to explain the effects of wage dispersion. In sports, performance statistics are published in detail, and the wages are often publicly disclosed. These circumstances found in sports datasets are beneficial for the research on the influences of wage dispersion. The presented literature is compared regarding their explanatory variables. This paper emphasizes on three issues for further investigations on the effects of wage dispersion on team performance. Different measures of wage dispersion, as well as the explained dispersion in pay and the possibility of non-linear effects, will be discussed. The discussion results in suggestions for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore whether there exists gender wage gap in the gig economy and examine to what degree gender differences in job application strategy could account for the gap. With a large-scale dataset from a leading online labor market, we show that females only earn around 81.4% of the hourly wage of their male counterparts. We further investigate three main aspects of job application strategy, namely bid timing, job selection, and avoidance of monitoring. After matching males with females using the propensity score matching method, we find that females tend to bid later and prefer jobs with a lower budget. In particular, the observed gender difference in bid timing can explain 7.6% of the difference in hourly wage, which could account for 41% of the gender wage gap (i.e. 18.6%) observed by us. Moreover, taking advantage of a natural experiment wherein the platform rolled out the monitoring system, we find that females are less willing to bid for monitored jobs than males. To further quantify the economic value of the gender difference in avoidance of monitoring, we run a field experiment on Amazon Mechanical Turk (AMT), which suggests that females tend to have a higher willingness to pay (WTP) for the avoidance of monitoring. The gender difference in WTP for the avoidance of monitoring can explain 8.1% of the difference in hourly wage, namely, 44% of the observed gender wage gap. Overall, our study reveals the important role of job application strategies in the persistent gender wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japan has one of the highest gender wage gaps of any industrialized nation. However, it is unclear to what extent female employees 1) willingly chose lower-paid jobs, 2) are excluded from better-paid employment, or 3) are less productive. Using a matched employer-employee sample of elite white-collar Japanese workers, I examine these three possibilities. I find that both women and men dislike female-typed jobs, suggesting that women do not chose them voluntarily. Women are less productive, in part justifying the gender pay gap, but employers also reward men and women's productivity differently: men and women with high productivity receive similar rewards, while among unproductive workers, only women are penalized. The results demonstrate that employers' unequal treatment of men and women is a more important contributor to within-firm wage gaps than are employees' choices and preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Income and wage inequality between gender and other social groups is commonly evaluated by the difference in average income or the decomposition of the total amount inequality into a between-group and a within-group component using an inequality measure such as the Theil index. Either approach ignores the dispersional difference between social groups, often manifested in glass ceiling and glass floor effects. This paper introduces a refined Theil decomposition that offers two ways of capturing such between-group distributional differences. An analysis of income data from 10 European countries illustrates the usefulness of the proposed evaluation/decomposition methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociocultural values emphasizing Western ideal body figures have become more important over the past twenty years. An important question is whether the same obesity wage penalties seen in the United States, such as wage reductions for obese individuals, are emerging alongside ideal body figure changes in China. We hypothesize that Westernization will exacerbate the impact of body size on wages for years to come, particularly for nonmanual workers whose workplaces call for extensive interpersonal relations with employers, colleagues, or customers. This study examines the economic outcomes for individuals aged 18-55, focusing on 5,103 female and 6,901 male participants in the longitudinal 1991-2009 China Health and Nutrition Survey. Linear fixed-effects regression models estimate the net effect of BMI on wages; the marginal effect of BMI on wages, by survey year, is also estimated. All analyses control for demographic backgrounds and household fixed effects and are stratified by gender. The results show that there was no obesity wage penalty for men and women during the period 1991-2009. On the other hand, the wage disparity gap for heavier women with nonmanual jobs increased significantly after 2000. Specifically, normal weight women with nonmanual jobs in 2009 made 2.84-2.96 times more than in 1991, while overweight women made 2.77-2.80 times more, and obese women made only 2.58-2.74 times more. The results indicate that women have been subject to wage disparities since 2000, while current male obesity rates may be worsened by social acceptance of a larger body size, particularly for manual workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to analyze the skilled-unskilled wage gap generated by the economic openness and determines if the Stolper-Samuelson theorem is accomplished in Mexico. This work analyses the years 2005, 2009 and 2014. The economic aperture's effect is showed by the regionalization of the country in three areas, according to their exposure to the economic aperture. The wage gap analysis is made by the Juhn, Murphy and Pierce decomposition method developed in 1991. As a result, it is observed that in the period of analysis the skilled-unskilled wage gap was reduced, according what the Stolper-Samuelson theorem predicts, however, this reduction was a result of the wage's precariousness of both skill and unskilled workers in Mexico and in its regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prioritizing husbands' careers over wives' careers should theoretically constrain wives' career advancement and contribute to the gender wage gap. However, past research has not systematically tested how career priority in decision-making affects decision outcomes. This paper is the first to offer a behavioral operationalization of career prioritizing in family migration decisions and test whether the prioritized spouse indeed experiences better relative outcomes. I analyze dual-earner couples' reports on 73 decisions about whether and where to move. As predicted, husbands' careers fare better than their wives' careers when he has a job lined up before the decision made, when he finds a job before she does, when only the wife makes a job change, and when his career is given as the main reason for choosing that option. Decisions resulting in moves are relatively better for husbands than for wives, compared to decisions not to move. Surprisingly, spouses' relative career gains are not significantly related to whose career initiated the situation, or whether the wife had a job lined up. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Are income inequalities considered legitimate in a society with high inequality as Chile? The International Social Justice Project (ISJP) 2006 includes for the first time a factorial survey research module about justice of earnings that was specially designed for the case of Chile. The use of this type of surveys allows determining the weight given to different criteria in the evaluation of a just earning, and therefore it permits to establish the criteria for a just distribution in a group or population. Based on the analysis of this dataset, the presentation is aimed at establishing the influence of variables such as sex, educational level, ethnical adscription and family status in the determination of a just earning. Besides, the role of income and justice ideologies of the respondents are analyzed as predictors of earnings evaluation, attempting to explain individual variation related to structural and cultural influences. The results are discussed in the framework of the socio economic situation of Chile, one of the countries with the highest income inequality worldwide. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses sex discrimination against women executives in terms of pay equity. It is said that a gender gap exists between the wages earned by men and women which is only partially explained by differences in career choices or experience. This differential is said to increase along with rank in the corporate hierarchy, so that entry-level workers generally do not face serious gender-related wage inequities, but top female executives often earn dramatically less than their male counterparts. Evidence that this is so and an analysis of possible causes of such a phenomenon are presented.

In this study, we draw upon the utility theory of career mobility to hypothesize the career transition behaviors of IT professionals in response to relative wage differences. We evaluate our hypothesis using survival analysis to analyze longitudinal data on the career moves of IT professionals. As expected, we find that IT professionals respond to relative wage differences by making career transitions; moreover, we find that female IT professionals are more sensitive than male IT professionals to relative wage differences in their career transition behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the influence of career timing on gender earning differentials among 1996-97 civil engineering bachelor's degree recipients from Florida public four-year universities. Female graduates earned 98 cents for every dollar earned by their male peers after graduation in 1997. By 2004, they earned 82 cents for every dollar earned by male counterparts. Despite no evidence of personal characteristics' effect such as race, pursuit of a second degree, or employment during undergraduate studies either on the gender wage gap or annual earnings, career factors such as timing and length of stopouts influenced annual earnings but not the gender wage gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from three U.S. census waves, we assess differences in earnings among Male and Female "persons of African origins" (African-Americans, African, and Caribbean immigrants) in the United States both cross-sectionally and over time. Results of the analysis suggest that African-American males earn less than their immigrant counterparts from the Caribbean, all things being equal, but earn about the same as immigrants from Africa. This finding was especially strong in the 1990 census and less so in the 1980 or 2000 waves. For females, the pattern is essentially the same. We also examined different indicators of Human Capital. Our results indicate that earning a college degree from a foreign university prior to immigration led to a severe reduction in earnings; however, this penalty seems to have lessened over the period of study. We discuss these findings in the context of the continuing debate on the significance of race, gender, and migration status on socioeconomic attainment in contemporary U.S. society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Union density has been steadily declining since the end of the 1940s, yet the economy has been steadily increasing. The current study assesses the effects of union density on the wage gap of production employees to non-production employees in manufacturing. The results suggest that a decline in union density has led to a widening of the wage gap. The results are consistent across a number of models including political, economic, and industry growth controls for both data. The results support the theory that non-production employees have captured more financial advantages from the fall of unionization largely among non-production employees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides the first estimates of the motherhood wage gap for U.S. immigrant women. Women's wages have been found to decrease non-incrementally with additional children and the gap has been found to vary by demographic group. We estimate the gap for immigrant women with 58 broad and specific self reported ancestries. We find that the motherhood wage gap for immigrant women is similar in structure to that for native women and ranges from 2 to 8 percent among immigrant women with 1 to 4 or more children compared to a range of 4 to 15 percent for native women. The size of the gap varies by immigrant women's ancestry. Canadian, Italian and German immigrant women have higher motherhood wage gaps than U.S. native women while gaps do not appear to exist among the largest groups of South Asian immigrant women. Additionally, motherhood wage gaps occur among higher numbers of ancestry groups as number of children increases from 1 to 3. We explore possible connections between the motherhood wage gap and variations in earnings, age and educational attainment by immigrant women's ancestry and numbers of children [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intersection of race and immigrant status forms a unique social space where minority group members and immigrants are afforded or denied the privileges that are routinely accorded to native-born, non-Hispanic whites. Yet recent research on the intersection of race and immigrant status, though, is somewhat outdated, limited to a small number of racial groups (e.g., African Americans and Asians), and inconsistent in its findings. In this paper, we shed light on intersection of race and immigrant status by answering two questions: 1) Do racial disparities in socioeconomic outcomes vary by nativity? And 2) Do native-immigrant disparities in socioeconomic outcomes vary by race? Through hierarchical linear modeling analyses of 2000 Census data linked to metropolitan-area and sending-country data, we address these questions by estimating wage disparities among men by race and nativity. We find that racial wage disparities are similar and significant among natives and immigrants, and that the immigrant experience is considerably worse for blacks, Asians, and Latinos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a long tradition of examination of racial and gender wage gap across jobs little is known about the relative devaluation of jobs at the 2000s and about the sources that are associated with differentiation in devaluation of jobs across labor markets. Using the Census 2000 and O*NET data sets to create a two level models to estimate the level of devaluation of jobs within and between labor markets this study reveals that both within jobs discrimination and between labor market discrimination account for the lower wages to jobs held by minorities and women. This research confirms that female and minority representation in a job reduces the level of wages, even when the two job types have similar skills and requirements. The wage gap that can be attributed to devaluation of jobs held by white woman is about 34% and 38% of minority woman jobs and the racial devaluation of male jobs is about 14%. However, gender and racial devaluation is not constant across labor markets. In labor markets with high proportion of blacks discrimination is against jobs per se. and thus spatial inequality maintained regardless of higher discrimination against individuals. Similarly, gender devaluation across labor market tend to intensify with the increase competition over jobs, the higher the competition among women or between women and men (i.e. where the participation of women in the labor force increased and in dense Hispanics labor markets) the higher the devaluation against woman jobs. This study showed that high roaded policies and institutional arrangements can improve wages in jobs held by disadvantaged population and reduce inequality across labor markets. The most important policy intervention is the UI benefit that decreases the employers' ability to exploit the unemployed population in order to lower wages to jobs held by minorities and women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the thesis of increasing overall inequality in German society, this paper discusses changes in the inequality of wages during the period of the social democratic-led government between 1998 and 2005. For the empirical analysis, data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) are used. The main goal of the analyses is to identify the differences in the growth of real wages of various social classes. Empirically, the results show that the inequality of real wages increased between 1998 and 2005. This increase is due to the negative growth of lower-level wages and a corresponding increase in median and higher-level wages. A more detailed look at the wage differences with respect to the individual social class position reveals that the differentiation between social classes has widened over the period in question, leaving the lower classes as losers of the recent wage dynamics in the German labour market. Besides increasing inter-class wage differentials, there was also a slight increase in the intra-class component, pointing to a growing differentiation within social classes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article looks at the relationship between pay dispersion and executive turnover decisions in publicly-held firms. Executive retention within top management teams (TMTs) is typically greater when promoted by organizational structures that are more egalitarian rather than hierarchical. The incentive intensity of companies also influences both voluntary and involuntary turnover. Relative market pay position is thought to moderate the impact of pay dispersion on turnover. Factors used as control variables in this research include firm size, capital intensity, and employment instability.

Gender wage gap is among the most persistent and durable characteristics of labor markets and women's lives. Despite differences in focus, almost all studies of the gender wage gap focus on the adult labor market, however almost every teenager in the United States works before adulthood. Therefore, an overwhelming majority of the population experience the labor market, and possibly the gender wage gap, well beforehand. This article focuses on the early labor market experiences of youth and analyzes the gender differentials in earning in the youth labor market.Based on a maximum likelihood estimation with modeled heteroskedasticity using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY97), the findings show there are no gender differences in wages for 12-13 year-old youth. However, we see the emergence of the gender wage gap around fourteen, which widens with age. The wage differential in the early labor market is explained mostly by occupational factors such as types of jobs boys and girls are employed in. However, the "cost of being a girl" still remains. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses three puzzles in inequality to illustrate a new type of account of changes in inequality. The puzzles are first, the combination of falling racial wage inequality with rising racial employment inequality; second, the failure of large numbers of degree holders to drive down the relative returns to degrees; and third, the rise in inequality within and between groups. The paper discusses the overall logical structure of the explanations offered, what those explanations do and do not show, and how they compare to other accounts. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes to a broader understanding of the role of marriage in gender stratification in a comparative perspective by providing important descriptive evidence of the distribution of the marriage wage gap for men and women cross-nationally.This paper focuses on marital status and men's and women's wages in fifteen countries using Wave V of the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS). Examining whether there are systematic wage differences between married and unmarried individuals, I find clear evidence of a wage advantage for married men but mixed results for women. Results suggest that both selection into marriage and, to a much more limited extent, household structure are relevant in accounting for some of the wage advantage for married men as well marriage wage differentials found for women. For women, differences in human capital and household structure explain differences in the wages between married and unmarried women in nine of the fifteen countries, but only one country for men. For men, the variation in the marriage bonus net of human capital and household context is limited; for women it varies widely. Explorations seeking to link the variation in the marriage wage gap with macro level indicator such as fertility or female labor force participation do not suggest a clear link to these aspects of the institutional context. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over recent decades, the number of Americans age 65 or older has grown as a proportion of the entire population. This unprecedented aging phenomenon poses that elderly-care issue will become even more important in the near future, and adult children will play an essential role to provide support to their older parents because most adults will have older living parents during their lifetime. Past studies have shown that gender norms play a significant role in the caregiving practice, yet few assess how wage differentials between both sexes may also affect adult children's intergenerational transfer behaviors. Do working adult children use monetary resources to substitute or supplement time contributions to their elderly mothers? How does gendered wage gap influence adult sons and daughters' support-giving decisions? Using the 1992 Health and Retirement Study, this study found that the differentials in transfer practices between adult daughters and sons are a by-product of gender norms and the gendered labor force structure. The multivariate analysis confirmed that adult sons with a higher wage rate tend to spend less time in the caregiving tasks, yet daughters' time contributions do not decline with their earning potentials. Well-paid daughters still spend longer hours than sons to fulfill elderly mothers' caregiving need. In other words, while adult sons use money to substitute for their time transfers, daughters view monetary and time resources as a complement to each other and use them simultaneously in the intergenerational transfer practice. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use the National Survey of College Graduates to estimate black-white wage differences after controlling for the major field of study of the highest degree obtained. Our multivariate statistical models also control for parental education and rural origins. The results for women indicate that, after controlling for these variables, the net effect for being African American is close to zero and not statistically significant. For men, however, the wage gap between African Americans and whites persists. Relative to conventional statistical models that control for the highest level of schooling completed and other basic demographic characteristics, about one-third of the black-white wage gap is explained by field of study and socioeconomic background. More specifically, the latter results indicate that, among college-educated workers, the wages of African American men are still about 13% lower than comparable white men. The implications of these results for understanding the nexus of race, gender, inequality, and education are considered. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The black-white wage gap among women grew from 7 to 17% between 1980 and 2002, increasing despite the improving economic conditions of the 1990s. This paper uses decomposition and relative distribution methods to evaluate this marked growth. Although the majority of the mean log wage gap was due to compositional difference, differential returns played an increasing role over the observation period. Decomposition finds that differential attainment of a college degree and changing labor market conditions have increasingly disadvantaged black women relative to white women. Changing returns to the health care industry, professional, managerial, and sales occupations, working part-time, and being paid hourly contributed most to the growth in the black-white wage gap. Relative distribution methods examine the entire wage distribution and indicate that compositional difference is primarily responsible for the declining fortune of black women across the wage distribution. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyzes the impact of marital status and children on wages and promotions over an 18-year period (1980-1997) in Norway. Norway is a country with strong family policies, with generous support and leave policies after child births, reasonable and widely accessible child care, and a number of other policies aimed at making it easy to combine family and work. The paper uses unique firm-based data, which each year covers about 6,200 firms and about 100,000 employees in the firms. We have access to individual-level wages and careers of the about 100,000 employees annually over the 18-year period, in addition to occupation data, child births, marital histories, educational histories, and more. We address the effects of childbirths for wages and careers and how these effects vary by sex. Most importantly, we assess the level at which the impact of marriage and children occurs: in the allocation of employees to occupations and firms, or whether they also occur within occupations and within occupation-firm units. One of the findings is that having children under age 20 on average increases male wages while it decreases female wages. But once the same work is done in the same occupation and establishment, at the so-called job level, the effects of marriage and children are negligible for both men and women. This is an entirely new type of results, as these processes of marital status and children have not been investigated with respect to how they play out at the firm level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces the first version of a new, standardized data tool that can be used to test models of global income allocation, the Standardized Income Distribution Database (SIDD). It is based on a comprehensive collection of income distribution data compiled by the United Nations University's World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER 2000). In this paper, we use the SIDD to engage with the long-running debate on the shape and trajectory of global income inequality. We argue that this debate should shift from a focus on global inequality to a focus on global allocation, exploring the root causes of observed income inequality. When fully complete, the SIDD is designed to be a useful data resource for scholars on all sides of arguments about the mechanisms of global allocation. The SIDD will also find applications in the broadly cross-national study of the relationship between societal inequality and a range of important outcomes, such as health, criminality, and social support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to explain the role of non-standard work arrangements in the sex pay gap among scientists and engineers by drawing on a nationally-representative dataset made up of almost 50,000 scientists and engineers. Categorizing non-standard arrangements according to their wages and provision of health and retirement benefits allowed us to rank order them from best to worst. Multivariate regression results failed to confirm our main hypothesis: the inclusion of variables indicating non-standard employment arrangements failed to explain any of the pay gap among scientists and engineers. Nevertheless, we found that the earnings gap varied in different nonstandard employment arrangements. Unlike in the general labor force, sex inequality was greater in the worst non-standard arrangements than in the best, and sex equality was greater in the best arrangements than in the worst. The overall pattern we demonstrate is that arrangements where pay gaps favored men have the most negative job characteristics, and women were overrepresented in them. Surprisingly, women fared well relative to men in two of the highest-quality non-standard arrangements: contract work and short-term contract work. We conclude by raising the following questions: since in the larger labor force men are substantially overrepresented in the high-quality contracting arrangement, what forces make sciences and engineering different in this regard? And why is the sex pay gap less problematic for contract workers in science and engineering than it is for standard-employment workers in science and engineering? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to examine hourly wage differences across different groups of Mexican-origin workers. First, we assess the cost of foreign-born status by comparing the hourly wages of Mexican immigrant workers with those of native-born Mexican American workers. Second, we assess the cost of non-citizenship status by comparing the hourly wages of non-citizens with those of Mexican-born U.S. naturalized citizens. We also seek to determine if these costs are greater in California than in Texas. The data are drawn from the 2000 5% Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) U.S. Census. The results from multiple regression analyses reveal that being an immigrant, particularly a non-citizen immigrant, is associated with lower hourly wages, especially in California. Thus, Mexican-origin workers, especially those in California, bear dual costs for being foreign-born and not being naturalized citizens. Finally, we focus on length of time in the United States to assess whether the findings from the initial analyses hold. Results suggest two important points. First, the duration of stay in the United States is positively associated with hourly wage. Second, reflecting anti-immigrant policies and sentiments, those in California, especially a large number of relatively new immigrants and non-citizens, have faced much more disadvantaged labor market contexts than those in Texas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars interested in family and gender inequality have regularly found a negative impact of motherhood on wages, while fatherhood has been found to be positively related to income attainment. In this paper, we examine two factors expected to be related to the association between parenting and wages. First, wage gaps are estimated over time, to investigate changes in these gaps as postindustrial service employment and female labor force participation increasingly become the norm in the U.S. economy. Next, we examine parenting gaps across occupational groups to consider whether certain occupational characteristics are more or less amenable with the parenting role. We draw on data from Current Population Studies from three decade points, the 1979-81, 1989-91, and 1999-2001. The mother gap in income narrows steadily and disappears by the 2000 sample for married women, but remains strong throughout for single women. For married men, the father gap in income contracts initially and then becomes significantly larger over time. For single men, parenting is only associated with an income penalty in the final sample. Little occupational variation is found for any of these groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last two decades, explanatory power of detail occupation on wage has diminished and within-occupational-inequality has grown faster than between-occupational inequality. Growing within-group-inequality is not universal phenomenon by occupations. Both inequality change and mean wage change over time varies across occupation. Using these variability, causes of growing inequality is tested with multi-level growth model. New panel data is constructed from CPS-MORG 1983-2002 for this analysis. Popular union effect hypothesis and skill-biased-technological-change hypothesis are not working well within occupational context. Organizational culture change hypothesis seems to be better explanation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a model of race discrimination that is based on wealth inequality. A research revealed that African Americans are unable to decrease the income gap due to persistence of racial discrimination. The model reveals that an initial wealth differential can result into disparity between racial groups. The reason is the interaction among agents with a large wealth differential teaches members of the wealthier group to dislike the opposing group. However, without a wealth differential even groups who exhibit animosity toward other groups will learn the ways to interact.

This article presents abstracts of research on gender and diversity in organizations. One entitled "Gender Inequalities in Earnings Among Israeli Lawyers: Does Discrimination Still Exist?," examines the income gap between male and female Israeli lawyers. The analysis employs an exhaustive set of measures that includes human, social and psychological capital as well as occupational segmentation. The study, "Universal Diverse Orientation (UDO) in the United Kingdom and the United States: A Comparative Analysis," examines the role of gender and race on diversity attitudes in Great Britain and the U.S.

A number of theorists have argued that immigrants are a subsidy to receiving countries in that the reproduction costs for immigrant workers are paid in their countries of origin. However, existing theories of reproduction have focused on the differences between immigrants and the native-born. Differences between temporary and permanent immigrants are critical to understanding the implications of explicitly temporary "guestworker" policies. To examine such differences in wages, this study uses data from the Survey of Migration at the Northern Border of Mexico. Migrants? self-report of country of residence serves as a measure of permanent settlement. The study finds that the wages of temporary migrants (those reporting a Mexican residence) are 37 percent lower than those that have settled in the U.S. In models controlling for age, marital status, and human and social capital factors, the difference is 17.6 percent. The wage difference is not statistically significant in models that also control for occupation. Among married migrants, temporary migrants earn 11.6 percent less controlling for all the above factors. These results support the hypothesis that a potential temporary migrant would be willing to migrate at a lower wage than a potential permanent migrant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the emergent form of economic segmentation and its impact on gender segregation and gender-based earnings differentials in urban China. I argue that a new logic of economic segmentation has emerged during the market transition, altering the relative amount of economic returns to jobs, changing the structural features of job queues. As a result, new patterns of gender segregation emerged. To test this hypothesis, I use data at three levels: a 1995 national sample of individual workers, industry-sector data for 1990 and 1995, and city-level data for 1995. The findings indicate that gender segregation follows the new logic of economic segmentation introduced by the marketization: male workers have penetrated into jobs that have gained in earnings while squeezing out female workers from these high-paying jobs; driven out of lucrative jobs, female workers made inroads into the state sector, now that this sector is becoming differentiated and that its relative economic advantage wanes. Further analysis based on a series of multilevel cross-classified models suggests that in the most marketized cities, workers of both sexes in jobs with high rates of female entry are penalized in earnings, indicating that the negative effect of job feminization on earnings accentuates in the most marketized cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study differences in gender wage inequality across the OECD countries and how they are affected by welfare state characteristics. Previous research has neglected the possibility that both gender wage gaps and the impact of welfare states on them vary by class. Our analysis decomposes the gender wage gap into its class and gender components. In the same vein, we propose differentiating the impact of the welfare state between its effects on class inequality (decommodification) and gender inequality (defamilialization). We also stress the distinct role of welfare states as employers. This makes for a series of hypotheses which this paper begins to test by operationalizing classes as earnings quintiles. Empirically our case rests on a comparative study of gender gaps in 12 countries, using micro-data from the Luxembourg Income Study. The results support our expectations, and they sharpen understanding of the differences between the Scandinavian and American welfare regimes. Social democracy massively brings women into the labor market and broadly supports their earnings position by narrowing overall earnings differentials between classes. But it also appears to hamper the upward mobility of advantaged women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women have made remarkable progress in access to and attainment of higher education; however, gender differences in college major contribute to gender stratification in the labor market (Jacobs 1996). This paper explores the role that college major played in the change in the sex gap in pay from the 1960s/1970s to the 1980s/1990s. Multiple data sets ? the National Longitudinal Study ? Original Cohorts and the National Longitudinal Study of Youth, 1979, allowed for the creation of two independent cross-sections. The sample included young college-educated men and women who were in the labor force approximately 5 years after college. Results showed that changes in sex differences in major explained 16-30 percent of the decrease in the sex gap in pay over time. The gap in percent female of major declined, as did most of the gaps in broad college major categories. Changes in sex differences in returns to major explained zero-14 percent of the change in the sex gap in pay. Generally, changes in returns benefited men, particularly through an increase in returns to Science majors. Integration of college majors was an important part of the decline in the wage gap from the 1960s/1970s to the 1980s/1990s among college-educated men and women in the labor force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating institutional theory with social-psychological perspectives we conducted a cross-level investigation of gender and ethnicity based pay inequity in a Fortune 500 firm. Data from 3318 sales employees nested in 437 teams across 46 regions revealed that performance partially mediated the relationship between pay and ethnicity after accounting for the cross-level moderating effects of team and management demography. Gender differences in pay were no longer significant after accounting for performance and cross-level moderators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the result of 3,062 actual salary negotiations in a field setting. Findings suggest that "structural discrimination" in friendship networks is a strong predictor of differences in negotiated salary increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The twenty to twenty-five per cent differential between men's and women's salaries in Israel has remained ‘unexplained’ by the application of the conventional wage discrimination model to aggregated data. Our study demonstrates that a portion of this gap can be explained with the introduction of firm-level data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We build a model to study the implications of utilization-based minimum earning regulations of the kind recently enacted by New York City for its ride-hailing providers. We identify the precise conditions under which a utilization-based minimum earnings rule causes marketplace instability, where stability is defined as the ability of platforms to keep wages bounded while maintaining the current flexible (free-entry) work model. We also calibrate our model using publicly available data, showing the limited power of the law to increase earnings within an open marketplace. We argue that affected ride-hailing companies might respond to the law by reducing driver flexibility.1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adequacy of public sector wages in Latvia has been highly discussed topic since the economic crisis as governments had to implement fiscal austerity measures including public sector wage cuts to tackle the issues imposed by economic slowdown. Since then various attempts to increase public sector wages were made based on argument that public employers are unable to compete with private sector for qualified employees due to uncompetitive wages. However rarely these proposals have been based in empirical grounding. This paper seeks to answer whether public and private sector wages differ and whether the difference (if significant) can be explained by differences in characteristics. Oaxaca-Ransom methodology is used to decompose the observed wage gap in (1) part attributable to differences in characteristics such as education and (2) part that is unexplained which in turn can relate to differences in unobservable factors, discrimination or different market returns for certain characteristics. Furthermore, double sample selection is taken into account as the decision to join paid employment and the choice of sector could be non-random, and characteristics that influence these decisions could also be significant determinants of wage. Results reveal that the observed wage gap in favour of public sector employees ranges from 2% to 3%. It is significant not only in Riga (including its' suburbs), but also in other regions of Latvia. Decomposition results show that observed wage gap is mostly caused by differences in characteristics in particular by higher education attainment in public sector. When differences in observed characteristics are accounted for, unexplained wage gap outside of capital city is insignificant, whereas in Riga it is negative which indicates a private sector wage premium. Selection effects do not alter the results in Riga, however in other regions of Latvia those employed in private sector are "positively selected", therefore rendering the unexplained part of wage gap (in favour of public sector) somewhat larger. Overall findings suggest that different solutions for public sector wage adjustment may be necessary for capital city and other regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]