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This paper questions the "science of reading" as offering a secure bridge to practice and instead argues for socio-cultural grounded forms of best practicing. The paper argues for a shift from viewing curriculum as generic and standardized to viewing it as particular and generative--requiring formative and dynamic approaches to design. It requires tantamount to a shift from best practices to best practicing in concert with teachers assuming a position as cultural workers and learners.

This systematic review aims to synthesize the literature on the effects of cross-linguistic transfer on Spanish/English bilinguals' reading comprehension skills. The search yielded at least 90 studies in which participants were Spanish/English bilinguals aged birth to Grade 12. Researchers assessed participants' decoding and/or linguistic comprehension skills in one of the target languages (i.e., English and Spanish) and their reading comprehension skills in the other language (e.g., cross-linguistic transfer). Included is an analysis of the research methodologies implemented in the identified studies and the assessments used to measure bilinguals' language and literacy development. Preliminary meta-analytic findings comparing studies that implemented methods that allow for causal inferences to those that provided only correlations will be included.

This paper presents evidence confirming the validity of the RD design in the Reading Recovery study by examining the ability of the RD design to replicate the 1st grade results observed in the original i3 RCT focused on short-term impacts. Over 1,800 schools participated in the RD study over all four cohort years. The RD design used cutoff-based assignment established by pre-intervention test scores on the Observation Survey of Early Literacy (OS; Clay, 2005). In order to examine the ability of the RD design to replicate the results observed in the RCT, we estimated impacts for both i3 and non-i3 implementing the RD design, and we compare these results to i3 RCT results across four cohorts. Using multilevel statistical models, the performance of students above and below the cutoff score was compared, with students nested within each participating school. The hierarchical linear model (HLM) used to estimate impacts included the centered pretest assignment variable as a covariate at the student level, a parameter for the discontinuity associated with assignment to RR, a random effect for overall school performance (i.e., a random school intercept), a random effect for the pretest slope (i.e., a random school slope), and a random effect for the impact of RR (i.e., a random treatment effect across schools). In accordance with What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) standards for RD studies (WWC, 2017; Schochet et al., 2010), model fit and potential misspecification was assessed graphically via scatterplots and spline curves and also by testing for an interaction between pretest scores and the treatment assignment variable. Assumptions of linearity in the RD analyses were further assessed by testing polynomial parameters and by imposing various restrictions on the bandwidth around the cutscore. More specifically, analyses were restricted to include only students whose pretest scores fell within ±1.0 or ±0.5 standard deviations of the cutscore. Lastly, robustness of the RD was assessed by arbitrarily shifting the cutscore up or down by 0.50 standard deviations to confirm the absence of a discontinuity where none would be expected. Intent-to-Treat (ITT) effect sizes were calculated by dividing raw impact estimates by the mid-year first-grade population standard deviation of OS scores. Standardized effect sizes based on the RD sample were compared to standardized effect sizes from the previously published RCT study involving i3 schools. The complier average causal effect at the cut-point (CACEC) was created utilizing the formula from Bloom (2009, p. 12, equation 12) for those students whose forcing variable score was within 0.25 standard deviations of the cutscore. Results showed that RD estimates for short-term impacts on OS scores in i3 schools ranged from 0.65 to 0.78 SDs, and from 0.81 to 0.84 SDs in non-i3 schools. These RD estimates are remarkably similar to the RCT estimates of short-term impacts in 1st grade and were highly consistent under numerous model robustness checks (WWC, 2017). The similarity of short-term impact estimates between the RCT and RD designs confirms the validity of the RD design used in this study of Reading Recovery.

A workshop held in Baltimore was the second of two designed for the purpose of developing specific recommendations for research on adolescent literacy. Together these workshops, jointly sponsored by government and private sector entities, draw on the knowledge and experiences of researchers and practitioners who work with adolescents and their reading challenges. This workshop brought together primarily practitioners to present models in practice that address issues of adolescent literacy and to seek commentary from the individuals attending the workshop. The first part of this summary report presents a background discussion of the rationale for the workshop, highlights from the welcoming remarks, key issues from a review synthesizing the recent research on how reading develops during adolescence and the kinds of literacy instruction that can best meet the various needs of adolescents, and comments from meeting participants during the discussion period. The second part of the report presents synopses of four reading models being implemented in various parts of the country, with distinct instructional approaches--during the meeting, a discussion period followed the presentation of each model (the Corrective Reading model, the LANGUAGE! model, the Strategic Reading Course model, and the Strategic Instruction model). A synthesis of the comments made during all four discussion periods is presented at the end of the summary report because comments are applicable to all models. (NKA)

This paper, which presents the transcript of a working conference session on elementary and secondary education, explores the logic of scientifically-based evidence or research and strives to begin to understand both its definition as well as its intent. The paper also addresses how to begin to put this into practice and how to begin to suggest guidance. The paper focuses on trying to define what is scientifically-based evidence, what is its logic, what are its characteristics, what it is and what it is not. The contributions and contributors to the session are the following: "Welcome and Introduction" (Susan Neuman); "What Is Scientifically Based Evidence? What Is Its Logic?" (Valerie Reyna); "The Logic and the Basic Principles of Scientific Based Research" (Michael Feuer and Lisa Towne); "Research" (Stephen Raudenbush); "Math Education and Achievement" (Russell Gersten); "Implications for Scientific Based Evidence Approach in Reading" (Eunice Greer); "Safe and Drug-Free Schools" (Judy Thorne); and "Comprehensive School Reform" (Becki Herman). (NKA)

This collection of abstracts is representative of the sessions presented at the International Reading Association's Reading Research 2000 Conference, held in Indianapolis, Indiana on April 29, 2000. The theme of the conference, "Learning To Teach Reading: Setting the Research Agenda," was a timely one as schools, teachers, states, teacher educators, and policymakers turn their attention to teacher preparation and professional development. Abstracts in the collection are: "Hundreds of Studies Have Shown...: Exaggerating Findings in the Advocacy for Particular Instructional Mandates" (Richard L. Allington); "Teacher Education and Issues of Diversity" (Kathryn H. Au); "Building Reading Expertise in Elementary Teachers" (Marsha R. Berger); "Developing Ownership of Professional Standards" (Jennifer Berne, Taffy Raphael, Barbara J. Diamond, and Susan Florio-Ruane); "Building a School Environment for Professional Development: The Case of Early Literacy" (Robert Calfee); "National Commission on Excellence in Elementary Teacher Preparation for Reading Instruction: Findings, Implementation, and Recommendations. Features of Excellence" (Deborah Eldridge, Rachelle Loven, Joyce C. Fine, George P. Gonzalez, and Alene L. Smith); "National Commission on Excellence in Elementary Teacher Preparation for Reading Instruction: Findings, Implementation, and Recommendations. Beginning Teacher Survey" (Amy Seely Flint, James V. Hoffman, Misty Sailors, and Marg Mast); "The Impact of Professional Standards" (Gary Galluzzo); "Preservice Reading Teacher Education: What's Going On? What Should Be?" (James V. Hoffman); "Using Multimedia Cases and Listservs in Preservice Literacy Education: Connecting What We Know About Good Teaching to Preservice Instruction Using Technology" (Charles Kinzer); "Social Reconstructionism and Agency in One Reading Teacher Education Program" (Rosary Lalik and Ann Potts); "The Status of the Knowledge Base" (P. David Pearson); "The Interface of Standards, Teacher Preparation and Research" (Dorothy S. Strickland); "The CIERA School Change Project: Translating Research on Effective Reading Instruction and School Reform into Practice" (Barbara M. Taylor); "Transitions into Teaching: A Longitudinal Study of Beginning Language Arts Teachers" (Sheila Valencia); and "Partnerships for Success in Teacher Education" (Carmelita K. Williams). Brief biographical sketches of presenters are attached. (RS)

This slide presentation outlines the components of the Reading Excellence Program. It gives the background of the Reading Excellence Act of 1998; and states that 1999 state grantees were in 17 states and would be in 14-16 states in 2000. It provides content and key strategy: six dimensions of reading, use of scientific research base; informs about state and district roles in program implementation; and enumerates some issues for reading instruction for English language learners (i.e. native speakers of other languages). Contact information is also included. (NKA)

This slide presentation first provides, in a concise form, background information on the Reading Excellence Act program authorized in 1998. It then presents a chart of fourth-grade reading achievement in 1998 from the National Assessment of Educational Progress. It also outlines some findings from reading research and lists the six dimensions of reading from the Reading Excellence Act. The presentation then focuses on appropriate reading skills for children to have from preschool through third grade, gives indicators of reading difficulties, and suggests what volunteer programs and extended learning programs can do. It concludes by listing resources--seven publications and three web sites. (NKA)

This 21st Yearbook of the College Reading Association reflects the ongoing efforts of a group of scholars who have dedicated their professional lives to the advancement of literacy through inquiry that is linked with actual teaching and learning. Following the Presidential Address by Timothy V. Rasinski, "Outside of a Dog, a Book Is Man's Best Friend: Inside of a Dog, It's Too Dark to Read (with Apologies to Groucho Marx)," and the Keynote Address by Donna E. Alvermann, "Are We Trend Spotters or Tale Spinners? A Report from the Field," papers in the yearbook are: "How the SQ3R Came to Be" (W. Pauk); "A Case Study of a Last-to-Emerge-into-Literacy First-Grade Reader and the Interplay of Reader and Contexts" (L.S. Wold); "Emergent Readers and Literature Circle Discussions" (B.G. Williams); "Preservice Teachers Constructing Their Meanings of Literacy in a Field-Based Program" (M.A. Martin; S.H. Martin; C.E. Martin); "Collaborative Research, Reflection and Refinement: The Evolution of Literacy Coursework in a Professional Development Center" (M.B. Sampson; C. Walker; M.Fazio); "The Impact of School-University Partnerships on Reading Teacher Educators: Important Conversations We Must Have" (D.L. Wiseman); "Professional Development to Promote Early Literacy Achievement" (R.M. Bean; R.T. Eichelberger; A. Swan; R. Tucker); "'I Just Loved Those Projects!' Choice and Voice in Students' Computer-Based Language Arts Activities: A Case Study" (S. Nixon-Ponder); "Using Literacy Play Centers to Engage Middle Grade Students in Content Area Learning" (L. Romeo and S.A. Young);"'No Somali! Only English!' A Case Study of an Adult Refugee's Use of Appropriate Materials When Learning English and Reading Skills" (J.S. Richardson); "Teaching Effective Research Strategies to Elementary School Students" (J.K. Kidd); "New Directions for Developmental Reading Programs: Meeting Diverse Student Needs" (J.L. Higbee); "Learning from Experience: Preservice Teachers' Perceptions of Literature Discussions" (J.R. Dugan); "Encouraging Metacognitive Awareness in Preservice Literacy Courses" (J.B. Matanzo and D.L. Harris); "Preservice Teachers Constructing Personal Understandings about Culture" (J.B. Mathis); "Traditional and Response-Based Writing Tasks in the Literature Classroom: A Comparison of Meaning-Making" (E. Newton); "Movement and Motif Writing: Relationships to Language Development" (H. Allen; T.G. Morrison; P. Debenham; P.S. Musil; M. Baudin); and "Improving Preservice Teachers' Attitudes toward Writing" (S.D. Lenski and S. Pardieck). Individual papers contain references. (NKA)

This 20th Yearbook of the College Reading Association reflects the theme of "community" again and again, in diverse ways. First in the yearbook are the Presidential Address by Marino C. Alvarez, "Adolescent Literacy: Are We in Contact?" and the three Keynote Addresses: "My Life in Reading" (J. Chall); "A Social-Constructivist View of Family Literacy" (S.B. Neuman); and "Finding Common Ground: A Review of the Expert Study" (R.F. Flippo). Other papers in the yearbook are: "Reflections on the Early Years of CRA and the Focus of Reading in the 1950s and 1960s" (R.C. Aukerman); "First and Second Graders Construct Literary Understanding during Readalouds of Picture Storybooks" (L.R. Sipe); "The Enhancement of Literacy Development in an Adult Beginning Reader through Creating Texts to Accompany Wordless Books" (M. Brock); "A Literature Based E-Mail Collaborative" (C.A. McKeon and L.C. Burkey); "Students' Perceptions of Literacy Learning in a Project-Based Curriculum" (J.K. Peck; W. Peck; J. Sentz; R. Zasa); "A Study of the Reading/Writing Connection in a University Writing Program" (S.T. Aydelott); "Historical and Philosophical Antecedents of Structural Knowledge: Implications for Assessment" (J.M. Pickle; L.Tao; M. Lively; T. Montgomery); "Synthesizing Authentic Assessment Information in Reading and Writing: The Potential of Curriculum Profiles" (G. Shiel; R. Murphy; M. O'Leary); "Assessing Oracy and Literacy in Bilingual Students: Getting the Whole Picture" (L. Lewis-White); "Mentoring Teachers in Professional Development School Learn from Student Interns" (S.D. Lenski); "Improving Elementary Teachers' Ability to Implement Reading Strategies in Their Teaching of Science Content" (W.D. Nichols; W.H. Rupley; S.L. Mergen); "Multiple Views of Case Teaching: Teacher Educators Reflect on Their Teaching Practices" (V. Risko; K. Camperell; L. Degler; M. Eanet; J. Richards); "When Teachers Change Alone: Case Studies of Literacy Teachers in a Non-Supportive School Environment" (P. Bloem; J. Peck; E. Newton; A.L. Williams; V.P. Duling); "Portfolios, Learning Logs, and Eulogies: Using Expressive Writing in a Science Methods Class" (D. Deal); "The Multicultural Fair: A Celebration of Diversity An Innovative Approach to Teacher Education" (D. Stuart; M.G. Pershey; L.D. Hayes); "Insights in Implementing Family Literacy Programs" (J. Anderson; W.T. Fagan; M. Cronin); "Collegiality in Higher Education: Taking the Risk and Making It Work" (S. Popplewell; L. Martin; S. Kragler; V. Hall); "The Influence of Portfolio Selection on Reflective Thinking" (D. Truscott and B.J. Walker); and "It Takes an Informed Village to Make Positive Changes" (S. Kragler; V. Hall; C. Walker; M. Craig; B. Goerss; R. Murry). Individual papers contain references. (NKA)

A qualitative longitudinal study, first of four parts, compared developmental movement levels and academic learning levels in young children. Subjects were 28 children of various ages who were not working up to grade level but who did not qualify for learning disability services. Parents completed a detailed demographic survey and a neurological organization evaluation form. Children were videotaped at 6-month intervals over 5 years as they performed locomotor, manipulative, and nonlocomotor skills. Results indicated a parallel between the difficulty in mastering locomotor, manipulative, and nonlocomotor movements, academic learning at grade level, and demographic data. Academic classroom teachers should notice whether children are "toe-walkers"; walk up stairs one step at a time; can hop on one foot and change to the other foot with good balance; can walk forward, backward, and sideward; can crawl up on their hands and knees for a distance; and jump sidewards with two feet together over a rope lying on the floor. Teachers can use a variety of activities that get children moving and have fun. Teachers can also help children develop manipulative skills that involve developmental hand dominance processes and developmental eye dominance processes as well as exercising the brain and nervous system throughout the day. Further research needs to examine the development of these children's nervous systems. (Contains 21 references and a synopsis of the other 3 parts of the study.) (RS)

A study investigated the effectiveness of Emergent Reader Literacy Instruction (ERLI), an eclectic approach to teaching reading which incorporates phonics, basal texts, quality literature, and writing instruction through daily inclusion of guided reading, word wall/making words, self-directed reading, and writing. A preliminary investigation, carried out mid-year, compared 100 experimental subjects and 100 control subjects randomly selected from the first-grade roster of a Lexington, South Carolina school district. Subjects were administered two components of "The Basic Reading Inventory." Results indicated that the ERLI group performed significantly better than the control group at the independent level for comprehension and at the frustration level for vocabulary. Plans for a similar end-of-year analysis were revised because non-ERLI teachers adopted ERLI components in their own classrooms and contaminated potential control subjects. Instead, Cognitive Skills Assessment Battery (CSAB) scores were used to match 557 ERLI students form the 1995-96 first grade cohort with 557 control students from the 1994-95 first grade cohort. Results indicated that mean scores on the vocabulary, reading comprehension, total reading, and language subtests were significantly greater for ERLI students. Results also indicated that ERLI students scored 4 months higher than controls on each of the four measures. Findings provide strong evidence for the use of multiple traditional reading instruction methods but leaves unanswered many questions concerning possible synergistic effects and what possible proportional combinations may be most effective. (Contains 13 references, and 13 tables and 9 figures of data.) (Author/RS)

A study worked toward designing a small set of phonological, letter, and memory tasks that would allow teachers and other school personnel concerned with early intervention in reading to reliably identify children likely to develop reading disabilities (RD). A total of 446 kindergarten children from diverse geographic (west and east coasts), community (urban/rural), and economic (middle/low socioeconomic status) conditions were tested and followed through first grade. The strategy involved: (1) establishing selection measures and scoring criteria; (2) testing the parameters on a new cohort of children from a different geographic location, socioeconomic level, and ethnicity; (3) exploring the relative accuracy of RD predictors gathered in kindergarten and at the beginning of first grade; and (4) testing the contribution to RD prediction of including a measure of dynamic segmentation in which children received varying levels of prompts. Discriminant analysis based on a small set of predictors gathered in kindergarten or early first grade yielded high hit rates in distinguishing children who exhibited an RD profile at the end of first grade. Measures taken early in first grade were more accurate discriminators of future RD than were measures taken later in kindergarten, which in turn were more discriminating than measures taken early in kindergarten. Whereas phonemic segmentation and rapid letter naming qualified as primary discriminators of RD at all three screening windows, three other tasks were primary discriminators at some but not other screening windows. (Contains 24 references, 4 tables, and 5 figures of data. Two kindergarten tests are attached.) (Author/RS)

A study investigated the effectiveness of the Success for All (SFA) program developed at Johns Hopkins University. The program emphasizes prevention of failure, personal tutoring, family-school program, and regular evaluation of student progress. In 1996, the program involved schools in northern Israel--Arabic and Jewish, religious and secular. Subjects of the study were 211 students at 3 Jewish schools and 66 students in 2 comparison schools, and 69 Arab children in SFA schools and 67 Arab children in comparison schools. Subjects completed the Shatil Readiness Test, a reading comprehension test, and a writing test. Preliminary results indicated that: (1) Jewish children scored higher on subscales of reading readiness than Arabs, and Arab children scored higher than Jewish children on other subscales; (2) Jewish students surpassed Arab children on all subscales of the reading comprehension test; (3) children from low socioeconomic background, which were most of the SFA students, were similar in their writing achievement of children from more advantaged backgrounds; (4) Arab girls gained the most from SFA and were much closer in their achievements to the Jewish girls; and (5) Jewish boys received the highest writing achievement scores--their stories were evaluated as being better than the girls' writing. (Contains three references and three tables of data.) (RS)

This special issue of the newsletter "Council Connections" reports on the First North American Leadership Academy. The Academy's theme was "Strengthening the Operation of Reading Recovery" and its purpose was to develop opportunities for strengthening Reading Recovery in individual schools, sites, school districts and state and provinces throughout North America. The Academy focused on implementation planning (and re-planning), research, funding, and advocacy in Reading Recovery. The special issue begins with a summary of remarks of the keynote speaker (Marie Clay) and then summarizes presentations made in 7 separate conference sessions: (1) "Planning for the Effective Implementation of Reading Recovery and Descubriendo la Lectura"; (2) "Data Collection, Reporting, Monitoring, and Follow-up for Reading Recovery and Descubriendo la Lectura; (3) "Issues of Efficiency, Effectiveness, and Cost Benefits in Reading Recovery and Descubriendo la Lectura"; (4) "Building Ownership for Reading Recovery and Descubriendo la Lectura"; (5) "Grant Writing Workshop"; (6) "Examining the Legislative Process at Federal, State, and Local Levels; and (7) "Government Funding Sources." (RS)

A study collected baseline data which measured students' attitudes toward reading in academic and recreational settings; determined if reading attitudes in academic and recreational settings changed over time; and investigated whether difference in attitudes toward reading exist between grades or when students were grouped by sex. Subjects were all students enrolled in grades 1-5 at an urban elementary school. The Elementary Reading Attitude Survey was administered as a pre- and posttest. Students were taught reading with a "rather traditional" literature-based basal series. Some of the reading experiences and activities used in the school included daily reading aloud to all students, daily sustained silent reading, shared reading experiences, home reading projects, and cross-age reading. Results indicated no statistically significant changes at any grade level. Qualitative data demonstrated that all students felt that they were readers and that they enjoyed reading. Findings suggest that the school environment as well as the classroom environment and the experiences that the students had with real life literacy played an important role in producing this positive attitude. (Contains 19 references.) (RS)

A study examined the effects of age upon the amount and kind of explicit information in oral summary tasks of preschool and third-grade children. Findings show an important developmental change in the use and in the type of inferential operations. Preschool children used fewer connectors and were not as able to preserve the original order of propositions in the text compared to third graders. On the contrary, third-grade children showed the tendency to include most of the explicit information and they generated more textual inferred information, they were able to find the textual cues necessary for the retrieval of the elaborative information from long-term memory. Results also indicated that both groups may infer causal links between events and actions of a story in response to general task demands, and that they were able to know that these relations were important for understanding the story. Both groups activated automatic processes more easily than controlled processes. However, both groups had problems searching for bridging knowledge and making logical inferences. (Contains 2 tables of data and 12 references.) (Author/RS)

A study investigated whether children's early book reading experiences at home were related to later narrative skills, and whether narrative skills were related to school measures of literacy and language. Data were collected as part of the Home School Study of Language and Literacy Development, a longitudinal study designed to explore the relationships between early language experiences and later literacy and school achievement. Subjects were 62 mothers and children who carried out a story retelling task during the third annual home visit when the children were 5 1/2 years old. Mothers' talk during book reading was analyzed, and the stories retold by the children were transcribed and coded for story sense, non-pictured information, and length. Results indicated that: (1) book reading experiences at home at age 3 1/2 were related to the child's story retelling 2 years later; (2) home literacy environment at age 3 1/2 was associated with all 3 measures of story retelling and contributed to predicting the quality of the retelling; (3) children's story retelling in kindergarten was associated with kindergarten measures of language and emergent literacy; (4) story retelling was even more strongly associated with reading measures in first grade than in kindergarten; (5) all story retelling measures were associated with first grade reading and language skills; and (6) incorporation of information about the home literacy environment obtained at age 3 1/2 contributed greatly to predicting first grade reading performance. (Contains 7 references and 7 tables of data. An appendix presents the full text of the story the children retold.) (RS)

A study tested whether an intervention involving collaboration and the integration of reading and writing would build sixth-grade students' schemata for comparison/contrast and cause/effect text. Subjects were 76 students in 7 sixth-grade classes in 2 urban middle schools. Four of the classes were randomly chosen as the treatment group. For the control group, the teacher provided an interest-building introduction to the topic in the reading passage and gave the students an opportunity to predict the passage contents. Data were collected from pretests, interim tests, posttests, and sustained effects tests. Results indicated that (1) students in the treatment group closely approached full awareness of the comparison/contrast structure and achieved high partial awareness of the cause/effect structure; (2) the treatment group showed a small but consistent upward trend on recall protocols for the comparison/contrast structure, while the control group declined during the intervention; (3) for cause/effect, the treatment group showed an upward growth pattern followed by a decline on the sustained effects test, while the control group scored consistently below its initial status level until the sustained effects test when it showed a slight increase over its initial status score; (4) treatment group students experienced a greater increase of the number of idea units over the course of the intervention than did the control group; and (5) students' initial awareness of structure did not influence their rate of growth in the percentage of top-level idea units remembered. (Contains 71 references and 4 figures of data.) (RS)

A study investigated the diversity in listener responses to student behaviors during oral reading. Participants were four beginning readers in grades one through three. The adult listeners included the child's classroom teacher, a listener from the home, and a reading teacher and/or one or more reading tutors. The children were videotaped reading a different but comparable book with each listener. Transcripts of 13 sessions, including miscues, corrections, and other responses and interactions were coded and analyzed to determine variation. Results indicated that these young readers faced a lot of variety, and that patterns of reader and listener behaviors seemed interrelated in very complex ways. Listeners seemed to have a preferred response to miscues and differed considerably in the amount of chance they allowed readers to catch and correct their own errors. Listeners also varied greatly in their demand for accuracy when meaning was not distorted by the miscue. Most young readers were allowed to do only very short spurts of reading between listener-interruptions for accuracy. The number and type of interruptions often made it appear reading was not being done for meaning, but rather to decode each word accurately though this tended to vary in relation to relative difficulty of stories for specific readers. (Contains 26 references. Appendixes include reader miscues, a miscue grid, six tables of data, and categories of segments.) (Author/RS)

A study examined how beliefs and attitudes influence the processing of information: people tend to distort contradictory information to make it consistent with their pre-existing beliefs and attitudes and to use it to bolster their initially held convictions. The study addressed the degree to which people believed that HIV causes AIDS. Subjects, 27 female and 13 male undergraduate students in an educational psychology course, rated the degree to which they agreed with the statement, "HIV causes AIDS," using a 9-point Likert type scale. Of the 40 subjects, 28 believed that HIV causes AIDS. Subsequent data analyses were based only on responses of these 28 subjects. Tape-recorded responses to text, as they read it aloud, from the 28 students were transcribed verbatim. Twenty-four hours after reading the text, subjects were asked to complete a test of free recall of information presented in the text. Results indicated that subjects employed strategies that helped to develop intrasentential ties significantly more on the paragraphs that contained information at odds with their existing beliefs than they did on paragraphs that presented information consistent with those beliefs. Findings revealed that the students tended to accept "confirming" evidence at face value while subjecting "disconfirming" evidence to harsher judgment. (Includes 2 tables of data; contains 10 references.) (CR)

A study examined middle grades students' learning of concepts related to the use and interpretation of graphs. Subjects of the study were 76 sixth-grade students in 3 different mathematics classes in a central North Carolina middle school. The first two parts of the written instrument were administered as both a pretest and a posttest, using line plots and bar graphs; the second two parts, using stem plots and histograms, were administered only as a posttest, since few students have had experience with these graphs. For each question on the tests, the analysis involved categorizing responses in ways that characterized the nature of students' thinking. Results indicated that students: (1) confuse the axes of line plot and histogram type graphs; (2) have problems using intervals of data; (3) use the "middle" of the data to describe what is typical much less frequently than the mode; and (4) seem to find the measures of center, mean and median, not readily identifiable from the graph. Findings revealed that the manner in which questions were posed could influence the categorization of student responses, as could the visual features of the graphs, and that the students' interpretation of the word typical may not be viewed as intended. Further research is suggested to look at both visual and wording effects more systematically. (Includes 6 figures of data and 26 references.) (CR)

A study examined the effects of a reader response approach to literature in which literature is viewed as a medium for exploration and the effects of such an approach on a group of young women. Subjects of the study were four female middle school students, with the adult female researcher as participant observer. Books chosen for reading/discussion were "Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry," (Mildred Taylor) and "Lyddie," (Katherine Paterson). Subjects met for 15 sessions to discuss the books' characters and later for further reflection. Analysis was organized as follows: reading as lived-through experience, reading as social encounter, reading as a literary event, conceptions of female characters, women as connected knowers, and the importance of talk. Information was then categorized as: (1) descriptions of the girls as readers/responders; (2) analysis of their patterns in group interactions; and (3) analysis of the issues that arose as a consequence of the social interactions among the participants. Results indicated that problems were encountered, including talking about others in negative ways, inappropriate language, and hurtful comments. These should be addressed in the classroom by keeping channels of communication open, including students in decisions about conversations, and taking an open look at power and privileges. Findings revealed that life experience mediates responses to literature and books evoke strong emotional responses and provide means for cognitive and emotional growth. Re-imagining literature and re-imagining teachers' roles can be an exploration leading to significant work in understanding. (Contains 16 references.) (CR)

A study examined changes in students' valuing of reading during middle childhood and early adolescence. The study evaluated reading teachers' instructional practices as well as students' achievement motivation. Subjects were 254 male students and 276 female students: 140 in third grade; 142 in fifth grade; and 248 in sixth grade. The sample of 54 teachers included 43 female and 11 male, with a range of full time teaching experience from 1 to 41 years, in 1990. In examining reading teachers' instructional practices, results indicated that female teachers use supplemental materials in reading and writing instruction more than do male teachers; teachers of younger students use parents as tutors more than do teachers of older students; and elementary school teachers use rewards and parents as tutors more than do middle school teachers. In examining student-level data, results indicated that females and younger children value reading more than do males and older children. Finally, student and teacher level data were combined, using hierarchial linear modeling (HLM). Findings reveal: (1) performance oriented instructional strategies and cooperative learning techniques are negatively related to gains in valuing of reading over time; (2) the relationship between self-concept of ability and valuing of reading is somewhat lower in classrooms that are ability-grouped for reading instruction; and (3) reading is valued less in middle school than in elementary school. (Contains 9 tables of data and 29 references.) (Author/CR)

A study examined self-reported studying and quiz performance in a college course. Subjects, 22 female and 5 male students in an educational psychology class, were quizzed on 4 supplementary reading assignments across the semester. Quizzes were scored for three types of learning: definitions, recall of factual information, and transfer of information to educational situations. Immediately following each quiz, students were surveyed about their preparation for the quiz. Surveys were scored for the amount of studying, the level of reproductive or memory-oriented studying, and the level of productive or generative studying. Except for this survey, classroom procedures were kept as normal as possible. A replication study during a different semester and using four different reading assignments was also conducted. Results of both experiments indicated moderate correlations between self-reported studying and quiz performance. Survey results are generally inconsistent with models of self-regulation, as students were relatively stable in their studying despite relatively poor quiz performance. Findings suggest that situational variables, such as being too tired to study or having a test in another class, play a larger role than is accounted for in current models of academic studying. (Contains four tables of data and nine references.) (Author/CR)

A study investigated the effect of training Dutch students to learn to derive word meanings from written context. Subjects, 64 grade 6 primary school children, were randomly divided into control and experimental groups. The experimental group followed eight lessons in their mothertongue (Dutch), while the control group followed their regular lessons in which no attention was given to learning from context. The training consisted of three main elements: a text-driven element in the form of "Wh-questions," a schema-driven element in the form of a definition format, and a stimulus for decontextualization in the form of instruction that entailed "negotiation of meaning." On a paper-and-pencil Contextual Word Learning Test, the experimental group's gain was not statistically significant. Think aloud protocols of the trained students were analyzed to get insight into how often and with what quality elements from the training are used by them. Findings suggest that the trained students who have gained from the training, in comparison to those who have not, show more awareness of what it takes to find out and define the meaning of an unknown word and more awareness of the need for decontextualization. (Contains 15 references, and 7 tables and 2 figures of data.) (Author/RS)

A study explored the effects of bimodal (concurrent auditory and visual stimulus modes) versus unimodal reading on 8 poor readers between the ages of 9 and 12 years. An alternating treatments design was used to compare student performance on 12 passages, 45 in each of 3 presentations modes: bimodal, visual, and auditory. Session measures included spontaneous recall, comprehension questions, short-term sight word recognition, and subject perceptions of sessions. Results of both statistical and single-subject data analyses suggest that the bimodal format significantly facilitated the students' abilities to spontaneously recall and comprehend the information presented. Also, sight word recognition showed a significant increase across all conditions; however, no specific bimodal benefits resulted. Session perception measures resulted in significantly higher scores for the bimodal format and qualitative responses found that all but one subject preferred the bimodal format. Individual differences in treatment effectiveness were noted, suggesting that group findings ought to be supplemented with single-subject analysis. (Contains six references and four unnumbered tables of data.) (Author/RS)

A study assessed the effectiveness of a peer tutoring intervention for sight-word acquisition, and determined whether any progress was matched by improvement in reading fluency. Four primary students were selected based upon teacher referral for poor reading fluency. Flashcards were used to determine accuracy of recognition of vocabulary words listed in each students' current and previous reading books. Number of words correctly identified were recorded for each child. In addition, reading rate in the form of correct words and errors per minute was also assessed. Reading passages for evaluating rate were chosen randomly from each student's current reading book. A single-case A-B design was used. Both sight word recognition and reading fluency were assessed 1-2 times weekly for each student. After baseline data were collected, the tutoring phase began. Results indicated that three of the four students showed improvement in sight-word acquisition during the intervention phase, and all four showed definite improvement in fluency. (Contains 12 references and 16 unnumbered charts of data.) (Author/RS)

A qualitative study investigated the viewpoints and beliefs of five non-traditional secondary mathematics student teachers regarding using content literacy strategies. The five student teachers were military officers preparing for a second career as secondary mathematics teachers. Data included interviews, observations, and written materials from the subjects' preservice and student teaching experiences. Results indicated: (1) during student teaching, subjects' practice was substantially different from their beliefs concerning the use of content literacy strategies expressed at the start of the study; (2) differences appeared related to influences of cooperating teachers, perceived student needs, and curricular materials; (3) several student teachers expressed strong beliefs about appropriate instruction for students placed in differing ability groupings; and (4) an important aspect of belief which emerged relates to definitions of reading and writing in mathematics--several of the student teachers thought their students were not reading, when in fact they were solving written problems, making and reading graphs, etc. (RS)

A study examined the extent to which reported familiarity, reported utility, and perceived applicability of content area reading strategies were related to teaching in the primary grades. A total of 68 first- through third-grade teachers representing 6 elementary schools in 2 districts responded to the Content Area Questionnaire. Frequency analyses indicated moderate to large effects of knowledge, use, and recommendation of selected strategies considered general to reading comprehension. Variables reflecting years of teaching experiences, years of experience at current grade level, related workshop attendance, and related graduate coursework were analyzed to determine their effect on the three independent variables. The only variable that appeared not to affect the independent variables was years of teaching experience. (Contains 89 references and numerous unnumbered tables of data.) (Author/RS)

A study examined the attitudes of educators toward content area reading in the early elementary grades. A self-report survey instrument called the Attitudes Toward Content Area Reading (ATCAR) was developed to measure educators' attitudes and to ascertain whether there were different theoretical orientations of educators relative to content area reading theory. Q-technique factor analysis was used on an unstructured Q-sort to investigate whether respondents could be clustered into groups or prototypes from the data collected from the ATCAR. Three groups of respondents were surveyed including 15 content area experts, 15 inservice teachers, and 25 preservice teachers. Results indicated that identifiable clusters of prototypical individuals are apparent. These include those who appear to view content area reading ranging from a theoretical orientation closely allied with a skills approach of learning to read to those who indicate a tendency toward viewing content area reading as part of a whole language approach stressing reading-to-learn. (Contains 50 references, and 3 tables and 1 figure of data.) (Author/RS)

A study attempted to determine how students in literature-based reading programs compare to students in basal-based, skill-oriented reading programs in terms of their interest in reading. The study was carried out on a sample of 215 pupils in 9 third and fifth grade classrooms from school districts in Eastern Kansas and Northeastern Oklahoma. Students' attitudes toward school were measured with the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey, a standardized, self-report, paper and pencil test normed on students in grades 1-6. There are 20 items on the survey which constitute the total reading score. Results showed that posttest scores were in all cases below pretest scores, probably because reading interest tends to drop off toward the end of the school year. In both third and fifth grades, scores on the posttest, while lower than the pretest, were still higher in classes using the literature-based approach than in those using the skills-based approach. Generally, fifth graders scored lower than third graders on the reading attitude tests. Further, results from this study suggest the literature-based approach is especially important for males, particularly those in fifth grade. (Contains 2 figures, a table of data, and 33 references.) (TB)

As universities gain access to satellite delivery systems, faculty are asking questions about how information processing varies between print versus television delivery systems. A study compared 68 undergradaute adults' information processing activity when the same message is presented in print vs. on television. Results reveal little differences in the way readers vs. television viewers process information. No differences across conditions were found for the following variables: attention (measured as amount of invested mental effort and also by a reaction time secondary task); elaboration; memory of central content; enjoyment; and performance on recall memory tasks. Only two information processing differences were found across media conditions. First, readers reported more visualization of content than did television viewers. Second, contrary to theoretical predictors, time spent processing the message was greater for television viewers than for readers. (Contains 24 references.) (Author/RS)

A study examined issues related to between- and within-class decomposition of variance in reading achievement. The aim is to find "pure" latent structures of achievement at the between-class level as a basis for further investigation of explanatory factors such as teaching. Multilevel factor analysis (MFA) can give a pattern corresponding to an analysis with perfectly reliable scores. Data were taken from the IEA Study of Reading Literacy which involved 200,000 students from 30 different countries. Narrative texts for 9-year-olds were the focus of the multilevel factor analysis. MFA analysis was based on 39 variables, of which 23 were document items and 16 narrative/expository item parcels. LISREL models were fitted separately for between and within levels. The models were then pieced together into one complete MFA model. Findings demonstrate how a global skill like reading can be decomposed not only into individually based factors but also into factors related to group belongingness where differential influences of schooling conditions and home background could be discerned by reference to demand characteristics of small subsets of individual items. (Contains 19 references, 5 tables of data, and a figure presenting 2 subtests from the document domain.) (RS)

In the mystery genre, the one characteristic that the enduring figures of Sherlock Holmes, Nancy Drew, and Encyclopedia Brown have in common is a rational mind. The source of their strength is their ability to think and think well. A study examined some typical examples of the mystery genre in young adult literature and surveyed children and adults regarding their enjoyment of mysteries. Two sets of questionnaires were developed. In the first set, 32 adults and 29 children responded to a long questionnaire distributed through Bennington College (Vermont) students to a random set of adults and children. The second questionnaire was a condensed version, rewritten for 79 fifth- and sixth-grade children at a Bennington public elementary school and specifically addressing questions about Sherlock Holmes, Nancy Drew, and Encyclopedia Brown. Results indicated that: (1) children gave suspense as the reason they liked mysteries, while adults focused on escapism as the appeal; (2) children ranked bravery and risk-taking as important qualities about detectives, while intelligence ranked highest for adults; (3) males preferred male detectives, while females preferred either female detectives or mixed pairs; and (4) the "Goosebump" series (in which the irrational and the supernatural create disorder and fear) was chosen by 71% of the girls and 35% of the boys as their favorite mysteries. Results also indicated that children selected mysteries based on the cover and the publisher's "blurb." Over the years, the covers of Nancy Drew mysteries and Encyclopedia Brown mysteries have changed to reflect changing styles and attitudes. (The survey instruments are attached. Contains 16 references.) (RS)

As part of a larger Australian study on family literacy, this study obtained information about a wide range of family or community literacy initiatives currently in operation in Australia. The study was interested in how the language and literacy learning of students from a variety of schools and communities was influenced by the involvement of parents, caregivers or tutors. Advertisements were placed in newspapers, press releases were sent to major newspapers and radio and television stations, and major organizations, government departments, and institutions were contacted directly for information about parent/community literacy programs or initiatives. Over 380 responses were received, and information from over 250 programs or initiatives were added to a database. Overall, six major issues emerged: (1) most family and community literacy initiatives had not been evaluated beyond simple surveys of participants and the recording of anecdotal comments; (2) evidence concerning the impact of programs on student outcome was limited; (3) initiatives varied greatly in terms of content, process, participant control, and purposes; (4) many initiatives were "tokenistic" and paid little attention to the needs of communities, focusing instead on the needs of the school; (5) many programs that began with a concern for the support of children's literacy developed a secondary interest in the support of adult literacy learners; and (6) when programs were evaluated, some had the potential to lead to the development of significant partnerships between the home and the school. Findings suggest the need for more intensive evaluation of family and community literacy initiatives, and programs need to initiated by community groups as well as educational organizations to share responsibility, control, and ownership. (Contains 25 references and 5 tables of data.) (RS)

A study investigated whether readers infer automatically highly likely consequences of a state modification, intentional (action) or non intentional (event), described in short texts. Subjects, 48 psychology undergraduates at Paris VIII University (France), read explicit, predictable, or control forms of short passages using a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation procedure, after which they answered a question about the sentence and made a lexical decision. The lexical decision task used two SOAs (Stimulus Onset Asynchrony): 400 ms and 800 ms. Results indicated that: (1) accuracy on the comprehension questions was 95% overall and did not vary as a function of condition; (2) the explicit condition produced a faster response than the predictive condition that, in turn, produced faster responses than the control condition; (3) the long SOA produced faster responses than the short SOA; (4) causal inference began to decline with a SOA equal to 800 ms; and (5) the decision latencies of inferences expressed by an action were significantly faster than the decision latencies of inferences expressed by an event. Findings suggest that inference about the likely consequences of events and actions are drawn while reading. (Contains 13 references. Appendixes present examples of sentences and final activation values of the propositions of the text base of the three forms of one of the passages.) (RS)

A series of five experiments tested the importance of four types of skill development (single-word decoding, vocabulary knowledge, knowledge of text schemas, and question-answering skills) for reading comprehension improvement. In two of three experiments involving undergraduates with no known reading problems, results indicated that teaching text schemas and providing question-answering practice led to significant improvement in reading comprehension. There were 24 subjects in experiment 1, 20 subjects in experiment 2, and 30 subjects in experiment 3. Subjects who received decoding and vocabulary practice improved on those tasks but did not improve on reading comprehension. All subjects received three hours of individualized practice. When schema and test-taking practice were provide in small-group settings, in a third experiment, subjects' reading comprehension did not benefit. In two additional experiments replicating experiments 1 and 3, schema and question-answering practice failed to bring about improved reading comprehension in subjects who had failed a reading competency exam for students entering the university. Failure to bring about reading comprehension improvement in these subjects was not because the materials were too difficult. Findings suggest that textual knowledge-based skills, sharpened through the development of text schemas and question-answering skills, increased reading comprehension performance, but not for all subpopulations of college students. (Contains 14 references and a figure illustrating templates for schema instruction.) (RS)

A longitudinal study investigated the effects of leisure time reading (reading at home for pleasure or fun) on pupils' reading achievement in school. Subjects, 736 students in grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 in 30 schools located throughout the Netherlands, had their reading achievement determined five times: at the beginning and end of grade 3 and at the end of grades 4, 5, and 6. The frequency of reading in leisure time was measured intensively with diaries in grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 during 8, 12, 6, and 10 weeks, respectively. Variables such as reading attitude, reading aloud, television viewing, and the reading time at school were controlled. Contrary to widely held assumptions, results indicated no support for the notion that leisure time reading was an important factor in the development of reading proficiency at school. Findings suggest that the initial premise must be reformulated. Leisure time reading may have an effect on the reading proficiency of students only when the amount of reading, the quality of the reading process, and the quality of books being read reach certain threshold values. (Contains 26 references, 4 notes, 2 tables of data, and 5 models.) (RS)

A study examined literature-based stories found in first-grade student anthologies (basals), the adaptations made to those stories, and any award-winning stories found in that literature. Four current reading series were examined: Houghton Mifflin, Scott Foresman, Macmillan/McGraw Hill, and Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. The difference in the proportion of literature-based stories, the differences in the proportion of trade book stories adapted and the types of adaptations, and the difference in the proportion of award-winning literature between the 1987 editions and the 1993 editions were examined. Results indicated that: (1) in 1987, 17% of the stories in the first-grade basals were literature-based, while in 1993 that proportion increased to 87%; (2) in 1987, 92% of the trade book stories in the basal were adapted, with sentence-level adaptions being the most common type, while in 1993, 14% of the trade book stories included in the basal readers included adaptions; and (3) in 1987 and in 1993, only 5% of the total proportion of literature won an award. (Contains 26 references and 5 tables of data.) (RS)

Besides phonological information, printed words also contain visual, semantic, orthographic and often also syntactic cues. Skilled readers have acquired the command of this variety of cues incidentally, as a consequence of language development. Two naming task experiments assessed the effect of congruent versus incongruent phonological or orthographic cues preceding the presentation of a target word or pseudo word. Subjects were 21 poor readers (mean age 11;1 years) and 21 reading matched controls (mean age 8;9 years). Cues were either congruent or incongruent with the final part (rime) of the target word (experiment 1) or with the initial part (onset plus vowel) of the target (experiment 2). Results indicated that (1) in the rime task, poor readers' performance was more affected by the cue congruence manipulation; and (2) poor readers' deficit primarily became manifest in decoding pseudo words. (Contains eight references. An appendix presents the sample items used in experiment 1 and 3 bar graphs.) (Author/RS)

A study evaluated the effectiveness of a portfolio strategy to assess reading in the early primary grades. For a 12-week period, college students implemented portfolio assessment as they completed their reading block field experiences as part of their literacy/reading methods courses. Data included the portfolios, teacher surveys, journals of the preservice teachers, and observational notes and records recorded throughout the period. Results indicted that: (1) comprehension and language development could feasibly be tracked through the interviews, retells, running records, anecdotal data, text reconstructions, and language experience activities; (2) teachers and prospective teachers reported that the children were becoming better critics of their own work; and (3) during the on-site teaching of the methods course, classroom teachers were partners with higher education faculty as they cooperatively guided preservice teachers with hands-on experiences. Findings suggest that the awareness, acceptance, and utilization of portfolio assessment by practicing early primary grade teachers needs to be supported and ethnographic research continued. (Contains 29 references and two figures of data.) (RS)

An ethnographic study analyzed and compared children's participation in book reading activities with their participation in other types of literacy activities. Subjects, 15 bilingual children who were enrolled in a multilingual, multicultural preschool program where English was the common language, were encouraged to maintain their native languages through the presence of native-language tapes, books, and activities. Data included classroom field notes, videotapes, and teacher plans recorded and/or collected over one semester. Results indicated that: (1) the children were not very attentive during the book reading in English that occurred during whole group time; (2) the only children that were being read to in their native languages were the Chinese and Russian children; and (3) the children were actively engaged in other literacy activities, and activities that were not formally designed as literacy activities. Findings underscore the importance of creating opportunities for bilingual children's engagement with print in ways other than English book reading. Children in this classroom with its emphasis on multilingualism demonstrated an emerging awareness of different languages, different conventions of print, and different concepts about print. (Contains 12 references.) (RS)

A study focused on three graduate students (within a class of six) as they encountered the portfolio process for the first time as learners. Each was asked to complete a learning portfolio as a self-evaluation component for a 14-week graduate reading course. The students determined their goals based on self-assessment, documented their progress based on evidence they selected, and determined their final grade based in standards they co-constructed and evidence they presented. The portfolio component accounted for 70% of their grade. Data included pre/post responses to survey questions regarding self-evaluation, portfolios and rubrics, comments recorded during class discussions and individual conferences, field notes, and items shared by students in class and in their portfolios. Analysis of the portfolios indicated that all three subjects were capable of assessing their knowledge, practice, and habits. They were all capable, sometimes with support, of setting goals which more closely related to their needs as learners. The goals they chose for themselves were often different and the means they chose to document their learning were often different. Findings suggest that all three subjects had contextualized their learning, they participated in the assessment, and they were engaged in a process which showed them how to be independent lifelong learners. (Contains 14 references.) (RS)

A year-long study focused on how the teacher-librarian partnership was enacted within different elementary school contexts where there is a literature-based approach for instruction. Teachers and librarians at two schools were observed for a total of 392 hours. Purposeful conversations to gather information or interviews were employed in conjunction with the observation. Eight theoretical constructs emerged from data analysis: (1) partnership events occurred in three ways--purposeful, springboard, and accidental; (2) partnerships supported literature-based instruction; (3) to survive, partnerships must have evidenced support, maintenance, and reward; (4) technology expanded teacher-librarian partnership possibilities; (5) contextual constraints or barriers existed which impeded teacher-librarian partnerships; (6) literature-based instruction had different meanings to different practitioners; (7) literature-based instruction was distinguished from whole language by practitioners; and (8) literature-based approaches were limited by and confounded with skills approaches, district expectations, and eclectic methods. Findings address how the teacher-librarian partnership evolves in the elementary school curriculum and how the teacher-librarian partnership is enacted. (Contains 19 references.) (RS)

Reading is an essential way of attaining information, particularly for students studying in a university. Using reading strategies is extremely important for non-native readers of English because it serves as an effective way to overcome language deficiency and obtain better reading achievement. A study determined the psychometric properties of a reading strategy inventory for English-as-a-Second-Language learners, identified the common factors underlying the instrument, and investigated if ESL college students responded differently to the instrument. Subjects were 176 ESL graduate or undergraduate readers studying or staying in Tuscaloosa, Alabama who were from 36 countries in Europe, Africa, Asia, and South America. Based on a literature review and pilot testing, a 20-item instrument was developed. Results indicated that the reading strategy inventory was a reliable instrument to measure the use of reading strategies for ESL college readers. Construct validity was established by basing the items on previous reading strategy research. The common factor analysis yielded a three-factor solution for the instrument--organizing information in meaningful patterns; meaning construction; and holistic compensation approach. Statistical results indicated that the subjects' use of reading strategies as reflected in the composite scores was a function of such variables as nationality, major, and English proficiency. Further research should focus on further exploration into and the theoretical explanation for the effects of nationality, major, and English proficiency on the use of reading strategies. (Contains 20 references. Four appendixes of data and the survey instrument are attached.) (RS)

In a 5-year longitudinal study, the home literacy environments of 60 preschool children in Canada were assessed. Over the preschool and early school experiences of these children, they were administered various measures of meta-literate awareness and later, standarized reading measures, to determine the nature of the home environment's influence on emerging literacy knowledge and reading ability. It is widely believed that school success is related to the environment provided in the home and that home also has an impact on preschool youngsters' development of emerging concepts of literacy and language. The present study did find support for this belief. However, at first glance this support appears far from robust. It is of interest, however, that home literacy environment became more of a factor when combined with age. Higher home literacy 4-year-olds tended to display more literacy knowledge than did lower home literacy environment age mates; this was not generally the case for 3-year-olds. (Contains 26 references.) (Author/TB)

The concept of autonomy can help secondary reading teachers help their students to become better readers and users of text. Research indicates that many students in content areas do not know how metacognitive strategies can be implemented so that students can become autonomous. Practical suggestions for helping readers become autonomous include modeling, risk-taking, time allotment, and purpose for reading. Reading educators need to realize that not only can autonomy be facilitated, but they can act on the effectiveness of autonomy and help their students become truly autonomous. (Contains 11 references.) (RS)

Two studies addressed the effects of failure in reading test performance. In experiment 1, 36 students in 3 intact reading and study skills courses at an upstate New York community college completed a questionnaire, were administered an "unsolvable" reading test, were either given no feedback or "failure feedback," an assessment and placement test, and a cognitive interference questionnaire. In experiment 2, similar subjects from the same community college were restrained from engaging in off-task cognitions to test whether performance decrements following failure would be reversed. Results indicated that students who attributed failure to universal causes exhibited performance deficits and increased off-task thoughts following the unsolvable tests. Results also indicated that instruction that discouraged students from engaging in off-task thoughts eliminated the detrimental effects of universal attributions of failure. Findings suggest that instructions to restrain from off-task thoughts can reduce performance deficits in reading tests. (Contains 23 references and 2 tables of data.) (RS)

A study examined how students use their prior knowledge and experience to help them understand a text, and how that influences what they recall from the text. Subjects, 46 sixth graders from 3 elementary schools in Nashville, Tennessee, were tape recorded as they thought aloud while reading either a passage on "sugar" or a passage on "fat." Passages were of similar length and were at grade 5 level of reading difficulty. Subjects also dictated their recall of the passage. Results indicated that the majority of the children's think-aloud comments were some kind of attempt to explain or elaborate on the text, with the largest category being bringing in information from prior knowledge or experience to help understand the text. Results also indicated that: (1) the amount of information recalled from texts was very low; (2) more students included in their recalls information from sentenced adults rated as important in the text; and (3) no statistically significant correlations existed between amount recalled and reading percentile score on the subjects' Tennessee achievement test reading comprehension scores. Two case studies illustrate the relationship between what the children were doing as they read and what their recall reports were like. Individual differences evident in think-aloud protocols led to the conclusion that memory measures such as the recall report do not adequately capture the richness and depth of children's understanding of text. (A figure and a table of data are included; the think-aloud protocols and recall reports of the two case study subjects are attached.) (RS)