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The question of the acquisition of the first social phenomena by newborns is a crucial issue both in understanding the mental development and the ontogenesis of social interaction. The review attempts to investigate other researches that observe social behavior in studies with no communication between subjects. This current analysis reviews several studies on social phenomena -- categorization of words, preference of faces and even race -- in newborns and 3- to 4-month-olds infants and complements their findings. The review states that newborns and young infants are not able to independently classify phenomena from social reality and perceptually interact with adults effectively enough to understand the meanings of social phenomena on their own. The review concludes that the social behavior of infants is driven by adult social learning through non-perceptual social interaction between them. This thesis is supported by the recent review on social behavior of infants and the experiments on language acquisition of adults, where it is also shown the increase of group performance provided by such unconscious mental collaboration. The long-term study of non-perceptual social interaction could form the basis of the advanced curriculum that can efficiently introduce new knowledge into the long-term memory domain of students to facilitate and accelerate their learning. [This paper was published in: "ComputationWorld 2020: Phase 1 - Preliminary Proceedings" (pp. 56-61). IARIA.]

While the commitment to technology for neonatal and infant hearing screening in this country has come a long way and is evolving rapidly, the average age of 18-30 months, at which young children with auditory disabilities are identified, is still unacceptable. The promise of earlier detection, diagnosis, and habilitation of hearing loss is within reach if: (1) there is appropriate understanding of the magnitude and consequences of the problem; (2) information based on past efforts is utilized; (3) there is the ability to evaluate and use emerging technologies appropriately; and (4) collaborative uses of resources and agencies already in place are developed. Appended material includes a public awareness hand-out, a time-line on early identification of hearing loss, a summary of studies on the incidence of hearing impairment in high-risk infants, a draft position statement on universal hearing screening of the Directors of Speech and Hearing Programs in State Health and Welfare Agencies, and suggestions for community/professional advocacy for early identification of hearing loss. Contains 94 references. (Author/DB)

The behavior of the infant with prenatal drug exposure (PDE) is different from a nonexposed infant, and it is a difference that changes the rules of interaction for the caregiver. Infants exposed to opiates such as heroin or methadone demonstrate very specific signs of neurobehavioral dysfunction as they go through classic withdrawal symptoms. Infants exposed to cocaine exhibit somewhat more subtle behavioral dysfunction, but many of the same symptoms are present. Infants with PDE have poor self-regulatory abilities and are either crying or sleeping. Motoric differences are evident in tone and movement. Autonomically, infants with PDE frequently have persistent tremors, startles, moderate tachypnea, and other signs. All of these signs of neurobehavioral dysfunction range from severe to moderate and often are still present throughout the first months of life. Reduction of stimuli is the key, as infants' dysfunctional behavior is the manifestation of overstimulation. Caregiving techniques include protection from light and noise, swaddling, gentle vertical rocking, soft quiet voice, quiet feedings, and careful phasing in of visual and auditory stimuli. (Contains 35 references.) (JDD)

This paper presents results of a preliminary study which evaluated medical birth data as potential predictors of developmental outcome, and developed and tested an instrument designed for this purpose. Forty low birthweight children, all of whom had experienced neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage, were evaluated at school age (66 months) on the Battelle Developmental Inventory (BDI) and results were correlated with neonatal risk factors and birth characteristics. Of 15 variables correlating with the BDI, the variables with the highest correlations with developmental outcome were the number of days spent in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit and the degree of neurological damage. These variables were found to be more predictive than other commonly used variables including birthweight, gestational age, and APGAR scores. The study also found that adding demographic and social variables only slightly increased the amount of variance explained in the outcome measure. Attached tables detail study findings. (Contains 19 references.) (DB)

This document compiles abstracts of papers that were presented at a 3-day conference of experts which developed a consensus statement on early identification of hearing impairment in infants and young children. Papers addressed taxonomy; epidemiology; developmental consequences of early hearing impairment; methodology, instrumentation, and personnel; and models for early identification and follow-up. Abstracts of the following papers are included: "Early Identification of Hearing Impairment in Infants and Young Children" (Robert J. Ruben); "Site of Lesion and Age of Onset" (Jerome O. Klein); "Causal Factors and Concomitant Impairment" (Michael A. Karchmer); "Incidence/Prevalence" (Patrick E. Brookhouser); "At-Risk Populations" (N. Wendell Todd); "Auditory Development" (Joseph W. Hall); "Language Acquisition" (Mary P. Moeller); "Effects of Hearing Impairment on the Development of Speech" (D. Kimbrough Oller); "Social/Emotional and Academic Consequences of Hearing Loss" (Diane Brackett); "Benefits of Screening at Birth: Economic, Educational, and Functional Factors" (Marion P. Downs); "High-Risk Register" (Allan O. Diefendorf); "Behavioral Measures" (Judith S. Gravel); "Acoustic Immittance Measures" (Robert H. Margolis); "Developmental Screening in a Busy Clinic: A Luxury or a Necessity?" (Noel D. Matkin); "Recording the Auditory Brainstem Response in Infants" (Terence W. Picton); "The Auditory Brainstem Response in Infants: Basic Aspects" (Richard C. Folsom); "Auditory Brainstem Response Testing in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit" (Bruce A. Weber); "Evaluation of Hearing in the Neonate Using the Auditory Brainstem Response" (Yvonne S. Sininger); "Hearing Screening of Infants with Auditory Brainstem Response: Protocols, Personnel, and Price" (James W. Hall III); "Otoacoustic Emissions: Basic Aspects" (Theodore J. Glattke); "Utility of Distortion-Product Otoacoustic Emissions in Identifying Hearing Impairment in Infants and Young Children" (Brenda L. Lonsbury-Martin); "Characteristics of Transient Evoked Otoacoustic Emissions in Pediatric Populations" (Susan J. Norton); "Practicality, Validity, and Cost-Efficiency of Universal Newborn Hearing Screening Using Evoked Otoacoustic Emissions" (Karl R. White); "Models for Early Identification and Followup: An Overview" (Robert G. Turner); "U.S.A. Models" (Thomas M. Mahoney); "Canadian Models and Issues" (Martyn L. Hyde); and "The Public Health Perspective on Screening--U.K. Experience and Recommendations" (Mark P. Haggard). Most papers contain references. (DB)

To investigate differences in mothers' interaction patterns with their neonate twins based on birth order, relative size at birth, or gender, 37 neonate twins and their mothers were observed during the first 10 minutes of a feeding in a hospital nursery. Time-sampling recordings were made of maternal behaviors related to proximal stimulation, distal stimulation, positive and negative affect expression, and vocal stimulation. Fourteen neonates were bottle-fed and 23 neonates were breastfed; in all instances, the mother fed only one neonate at a time. No differences in interactions were found based on birth order or size within twin pairs. However, significant differences were observed based on neonate gender. Mothers displayed more positive and negative affect toward their male neonates than toward their female neonates. Mothers used positive vocalizations, looked and smiled at, and stroked and held their male neonates more frequently than their female neonates. Mothers were more likely to talk to others in the room when interacting with their female neonates than with their male neonates. Significant differences were found in the patterns of intercorrelations of several maternal behaviors toward their male and female neonates. These behaviors included expressions of positive affect, vocalization, and responsive and rejecting behaviors. (MM)

This monograph explores the research findings and experiential knowledge base on toddlers and preschool-age children who were prenatally exposed to alcohol and other drugs. It is designed to influence public policy relating to the needs and early intervention plans for this population, from the medical, child welfare, psychosocial, developmental, legal, and political/advocacy disciplines. An introduction outlines the scope of the problem and examines potential solutions to the problem through education, intervention, and research. Ten papers are then presented, with the following titles and authors: "Perinatal Factors That Influence Neonatal Outcome" (Sonia Imaizumi); "Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Cocaine on Newborn Behavior and Development: A Critical Review" (Edward Z. Tronick and Marjorie Beeghly); "Prenatal Opiate Exposure: Developmental Effects in Infancy and Early Childhood" (Karol A. Kaltenbach); "Fetal Alcohol Effects in Preschool Children: Research, Prevention, and Intervention" (Claire D. Coles and Kathleen A. Platzman); "Spontaneous Play and the Development of Young Children" (Carol Rodning and others); "An Ecological Perspective: The Impact of Culture and Social Environment on Drug-Exposed Children" (Iris E. Smith); "The Child Welfare Challenge in Meeting Developmental Needs" (Richard L. Jones and others); "Educational Policy Issues in Serving Infants and Toddlers Born Toxic-Positive to Drugs" (Charlie Mae Knight); "Advocacy on Behalf of Drug-Exposed Children: Legal Perspectives" (Janet R. Fink); and "Three Years Later: The Young Mother's Legal Battles Continue" (Robert M. Horowitz). (JDD)

This proceedings document contains papers addressing trends, determinants, and interventions in preventing low birthweight. Papers have the following titles and authors: "Trends in Rates of Low Birthweight in the United States" (Mary McCormick); "Evolution of the Preterm Birth Rate in France" (Gerard Breart); "The Etiology and Prevention of Low Birthweight: Current Knowledge and Priorities for Future Research" (Michael Kramer); "Support and Stress during Pregnancy: What Do They Tell Us about Low Birthweight?" (Jeanne Brooks-Gunn); "Results of a Three-Year Prospective Controlled Randomized Trial of Preterm Birth Prevention at the University of Pittsburgh" (Eberhard Mueller-Heubach); "Decrease and Rise in Rates of Preterm Deliveries: Haguenau Prenatal Study, 1971-1988" (Emile Papiernik et al.); "The West Los Angeles Prematurity Prevention Project: A Progress Report" (Calvin Hobel et al.); "The South Carolina Multicentered Randomized Controlled Trial To Reduce Low Birthweight" (Henry Heins et al.); "A Prematurity Prevention Project in Northwest North Carolina" (Paul Meis et al.); "The Family Workers Project: Evaluation of a Randomized Controlled Trial of a Pregnancy Social Support Service" (Brenda Spencer); "The Social Support and Pregnancy Outcome Study" (Ann Oakley and Lynda Rajan); "Prevention of Preterm Deliveries by Home Visiting System: Results of a French Randomized Controlled Trial" (Beatrice Blondel et al.); "Smoking Interventions during Pregnancy" (Mary Sexton); "Cervical Cerclage: New Evidence from the Medical Research Council/Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists" (Adrian Grant); "Prevention of Intrauterine Growth Retardation with Antiplatelet Therapy" (Serge Uzan); "Does Calcium Supplementation Reduce Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension and Prematurity?" (Jose Villar); "Magnesium Supplementation in Pregnancy: A Double-Blind Study" (Ludwig Spatling); "An Overview of Trials of Social Support during Pregnancy" (Diana Elbourne and Ann Oakley); "Inhibition of Preterm Labor: Is It Worthwhile?" (Marc Keirse). Appendixes provide the symposium program and list of participants. (DB)

This monograph presents the proceedings of the first National Institute on Drug Abuse technical review related to the conduct of controlled studies on prenatal exposure to drugs of abuse. Papers in the monograph are categorized by session. The first session (two papers) focused on the detection and quantification of prenatal drug exposure in infants, including studies of the effects of smoking and of pharmacokinetic correlates of fetal drug exposure. The second session (three papers) explored assessments of pregnancy outcomes, including discussions of the implications of previous research methodologies on future research; definitional problems in cocaine research; and the use of birth defect monitoring programs for assessing the effects of maternal substance abuse. Assessment of the status of the newborn, including studies on neurobehavioral organization, cardiorespiratory functioning, and brain development, was considered in the four papers presented in the third session. The fourth session (three papers) offered a framework for measuring drug-induced physical and behavioral delays and abnormalities, including both clinical and psychophysiologic perspectives. The next two sessions (with two and three papers respectively) focused on specific types of behavioral delays and abnormalities, covering cardiac and respiratory control, endocrine function, monoamine systems, behavioral development, nonhuman primate models, learning and cognition, and social and emotional development. The final session focused on tracking drug effects over the lifespan, and includes three papers on research challenges for following exposed infants into childhood, patterns of growth and development in narcotic-exposed children, and the integrity of psychopathology diagnoses across the lifespan. Each session concluded with a discussion paper highlighting study findings, methodological issues, and research problems and needs. (AC)

This study investigated the possibility of a functional relation between the auditory and visual systems in the human newborn beyond reflexive organization. Visual activity was monitored in 16 newborns through the use of infrared corneal reflection video tape recording. Infants were observed in total darkness and while monocularly viewing a vertical bar presented either in the left or right part of the visual field. Sound was presented ipsilateral and contralateral to the bar. Results indicate that sound produced looking first toward the source and then away from the source, thereby spatially biasing exploratory visual behavior. The data suggest that audition and vision are related at birth in a manner that is not purely reflexive. (Author/SB)

In this study, twenty 3-day-old Caucasian neonates were observed before and during feeding in an attempt to demonstrate that individual characteristics of infants, such as alertness and social behaviors, are related to the interaction of mothers and infants during feeding situations. Ten of the infants were males, 10 were females; approximately 70 percent were first born; 60 percent were bottle-fed. All had normal Apgar scores. Infants were administered the Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale after their two o'clock feeding. During the five o'clock feeding, two observers watched the mother feed her infant and observed maternal and infant behaviors using a 10-second time sampling procedure. Sex differences in both infant and maternal behavior were apparent during the feeding observation. Correlational analyses done among all variables of both the Brazelton examination and the feeding observation indicated multiple significant correlations among the Brazelton items. Results also indicated significant correlations between several Brazelton examination items and one maternal behavior (looking at infant) during feeding, and between behaviors of the feeding situation. A discussion compares the study findings to results of earlier studies on mother-infant interaction. (SB)

Based on findings that report differences between cries of normal and clinically abnormal infants, this study examined the relationship between birthweight and behavioral and acoustic features of neonatal cry because of the long-standing association between birthweight, perinatal trauma, and subsequent development. Subjects were 88 neonates between 12 and 36 hours old. The sample included 37 low birthweight, 25 premature, and 19 small for gestational age infants. Cries were elicited by snapping the soles of the babies' feet with a rubber band. Four dependent variables, two acoustic and two behavioral, were extracted from each infant's cry episode. Because other independent variables such as gestational age, sex, and race might confound the prediction of crying from birthweight, a multiple regression analysis was done on the data. A separate regression analysis was computed for each of the four dependent variables, in which the independent variables were birthweight, gestational age, sex, and race. Results indicate that birthweight and gestational age were relatively equal in predicting the pitch of the cry; but that birthweight, and not gestational age, was related to the latency of the cry. The predicting of abnormal conditions from cry properties is discussed. (Author/SB)

This study attempts to investigate the effects of increased maternal visual regard on neonatal social visual behavior and upon patterns of mother-neonate interaction within the context of a learning theory paradigm. Subjects were 3-day-old neonates and their mothers; with 10 of the 15 mother-neonate pairs as the experimental group, and 5 as the control group. Using an ABA experimental design, the investigation employed a modified time-sampling procedure with two observers simultaneously watching the neonate-mother interaction and recording a precoded list of variables on a special coding sheet. Experimental mothers were asked to increase the amount of time they spent looking into their babies' eyes without changing any of their other normal caretaking/interacting behaviors during the second phase. For the return to baseline phase, mothers were asked to disregard previous instructions and return to their normal routines of caretaking/interacting. Control mothers were given no instructions governing their interacting behaviors. Trend analyses were performed to explore experimental phase differences and correlations were computed for maternal neonatal variables according to group. Results indicate that increased maternal visual regard appears to have had effects upon neonatal social visual behaviors and patterns of neonate-mother interaction. It was found that the patterns of interrelationship of maternal and neonatal behaviors were strikingly different for the two groups. In addition, control mothers talked more often to their daughters than their sons and experimental mothers talked equally to sons and daughters. (Author/SB)

The effects of low, full (normal) and high birthweights on the broad range of neonatal behaviors measured by the Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale were investigated in a study which also attempted to replicate results of the authors' earlier study of the Brazelton Scale. Data from the original sample of 52 infants were included in the later study to make a total sample of 140 clinically normal newborns of over 37 weeks' gestational age. The infants' behaviors were scored on the 27-item Brazelton Scale. The principal component factor analysis of the second study yielded three main factors: attention-orientation, arousal and temperament. Results for the attention-orientation factor showed a significant main effect for birthweight, in that the mean score for the full-weight or normal group was higher than that for either the low or high groups. With low-weight neonates rated as a high-risk group for later developmental problems, it is hypothesized that a similar potential may exist for high-weight infants of normal gestational age. There were also some sex-birthweight interactions for the arousal and temperament factors, but these data are given a cautious interpretation because of certain characteristics of the sample. (BF)

This article contains a review of recent research on the: (1) effects of immediate post partum mother infant contact; (2) effects of early separation of parents and babies in neonatal intensive care; and (3) facilitation of reciprocal interaction between mothers and their infants in neonatal intensive care. A brief description of a study that would investigate the effects of an experimental intervention designed to facilitate synchronous interactions of mothers and their infants in neonatal intensive care units is also included. The proposed intervention would consist of using the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale to demonstrate to the experimental group of mothers the capabilities and individual strengths of their infants. (JMB)

In this study of 40 primaparous mothers (15 to 36 years of age) and their newborns the significance of predictors of maternal responsiveness was assessed immediately following birth in the delivery room and at feedings 2-3 days and 4 weeks following delivery. The variables used as predictors included the mothers' age and background, prenatal factors, the fathers' presence and responsiveness in the delivery room and neonatal characteristics as assessed by the Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale. The variables derived from data collected prenatally and in the immediate postpartum period were added to the analysis as they were generated. Results indicate that the father's responsiveness in the delivery room significantly predicts the mother's responsiveness immediately following birth, and that the mother's behavior at this time predicts her responsiveness during a hospital feeding. Age as a continuous variable and the choice to have a rooming-in arrangement in the hospital significantly predicts maternal responsiveness as it was assessed 4 weeks following delivery. The variance in the predictive significance of the variables at the immediate and 4-week postpartum observation is discussed as evidence of predisposition for positive maternal behavior. Also discussed is how these findings support the Sensitive Period Hypothesis which emphasizes the importance of the amount of contact time a mother has with her infant for the development of a positive attachment. (Author/MS)

This study examined the effects of early vs. extended mother-infant contact on infant, maternal and interactional outcomes in the lying-in period for 104 lower class mother-infant dyads. The early contact treatment consisted of placing the mother and neonate together for 10 to 45 minutes within the first 3 postpartum hours. The extended contact treatment provided mother-neonate contact in a roomin-in situation for approximately 10 hours per day of the lying-in period. Utilizing a 2 (early contact) x 2 (extended contact) x 2 (sex of the infant) unequal cells factorial design, 104 lower class primiparas and their health, full-term neonates were assigned to one of eight possible cells in a manner as unbiased as hospital contraints would permit. Because sex effects were slight and insignificant to the data reported here, the design was collapsed into a 2 (early contact) x 2 (extended contact) and analyzed as othogonal contrasts. Dependent variables included observations of mothers and infants during the fourth and fifth lying-in feedings. In addition, was evaluated using the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale and mothers were given a multiple-choice questionnaire on their infant's temperament. Results for infant, maternal and interactional variables supported the importance of immediate postpartum contact between mother and infant in facilitating mother-infant adaptation. Some support was also provided for extended postpartum mother-infant contact. (Author/JMB)

Thirty papers are presented from a 1981 workshop on the relationship between health care and education for infants with special needs and their families. Following a synopsis of the keynote speech, "Assessment in Early Infancy as an Intervention" by T. Berry Brazelton, three theme speeches are presented: "Building Relationships: Year 1--The Dignity of Risk" (L. Gilkerson); "Building Relationships between the Medical and Educational Communities: What Is, What Was and What Might Be" (J. E. Swanson); and "A Grassroots Approach to Institutional Change" (E. Badger). Papers are then presented on four major topics (sample subtopics are in parentheses): preterm and postterm assessment (the role of communication in infant assessment); intervention strategies for newborns and infants (high risk nurseries, program evaluation, and staff competencies); parent and family involvement (multicultural families, siblings, and theories of maternal-infant bonding); and fiscal, legal, and ethical issues (strategies for insuring the survival of infant programs). (CL)

The Nurse-Parent Training Project, developed in cooperation with Children's Hospital of Buffalo (New York), was designed to provide developmental supportive care for premature infants, and to reduce stress while optimizing neurobehavioral development. A program was conducted to train nurses working in neonatal intensive care nurseries, to enable them to recognize infant signs of stress and use appropriate interventions to promote infant stability. The training employed a stress and coping model to address infant, family, and staff stress. Sixteen nurses were trained, and observation of their subsequent clinical behaviors supported the efficacy of the training. Compared to 10 nurses on a training wait list and 10 nurses who did not wish to undergo training, trained nurses showed more caring behaviors during medical interventions and showed more effective supportive behaviors following medical interventions. (JDD)

In Part I, "Extent of Knowledge and Implications for Social Work Intervention," the following conference papers are presented: (1) "Unintended Pregnancy and Infant Mortality, Strategies and Interventions" (Alfred W. Brann, Jr.); (2) "Implications for Social Work Intervention in Biopsychosocial Factors Associated with Infant Mortality and Morbidity" (Frank B. Raymond, III); (3) "Social Work Program Efforts in Reducing Infant Mortality and Morbidity" (Gardenia B. Ruff); (4) "Theoretical Base for Social Work Intervention" (Kristine Siefert); (5) "Follow-Up of High-Risk Infants" (Eugene Perrotta); and (6) "High-Risk Infants and Child Maltreatment" (Dorothy C. Howze). Part II, "Cultural Barriers," consists of the following: (1) "Cultural Factors Associated with High-Risk Pregnancy Outcome: A Black Perspective" (Barbara S. Cambridge); (2) "Ethnic and Cultural Factors Associated with High-Risk Maternity Outcomes: A Hispanic (Mexican-American) Perspective" (Ricardo Arguijo Martinez); (3) "Ethnic and Cultural Factors Associated with High-Risk Maternity Outcomes in Southeast Asian Refugees" (Lucy Towbin); and (4) "Brief Overview of the Maternal and Child Health System, Oklahoma Area Indian Health Service" (Pamela Turner Hunt). "Care of the Handicapped Child in the Home" (M. Patricia West) and "Building Early Intervention Initiatives" (Anita Farel) are presented in Part III, "Handicapped Child." Part IV, "Bioethical Issues," consists of: (1) "The 'Baby Doe' Rule and the Care of Severely Handicapped Newborns: A Critique" (John C. Moskop); (2) "Bioethics Related to Maternal and Child Health: The Social Work Role in Technological Times" (Mary O. Holden); (3) "Parent's Rights vs. the Child's Rights for Care" (Dorothy Bon); and (4) "Critical Issues in Working with Terminally Ill Adolescents, Young Adults, and Their Families" (Patricia Wood Davis). Part V, "Advocacy," consists of: (1) "Strategies and Organization for Advocacy" (Dana Hughes); (2) "Examples of Advocacy on the State Level" (Doris J. Haar); (3) "Every Number Has a Name" (Judith K. Barber); and (4) "Healthy Children Initiative of Tennessee" (Lerlie M. Cleveland). (KM)

Research on the relationship between fathers and their children was provided to the Select Committee on Children, Youth and Families. Six areas were highlighted in terms of what has been learned about the father/child relationship, what information is still needed, and policy implications. Principal assertions included the following points: (1) fathers are increasing their involvement in family life in all subcultures and social classes, and this trend is likely to continue; (2) fathers can and do form significant meaningful relationships with their infants right from birth; (3) fathers are more likely to be their infant's play partner and have a qualitatively distinct style of play that is more stimulating and arousing than play among mothers and infants; (4) father's actual ongoing involvement with his child is influenced by forces within the family (mother's wishes, marital quality) and by forces outside the family (illness, job loss); (5) involvement of fathers during perinatal period is at a high level, currently approaching l00 across social classes and sub-cultures; (6) father participation in school programs and involvement with older children seems to diminish rapidly after infancy. (Author/BJD)

This paper presents an overview of the literature on mother-infant attachment behavior. Attachment is defined by Ainsworth as involving affection, discrimination, observable behavior, active participation by both parties, and reciprocal response. The process of attachment is seen by Stone, Smith, and Murphy as taking place in three stages over the first year of the infant's life. In the first stage the baby is "addicted" to social objects. In the second stage the infant distinguishes its mother from others and responds to her selectively. In the third stage the child realizes that the mother is different and develops stranger anxiety. Recent investigations on the maternal component of attachment indicate that there is a period shortly after birth that is most important to mother-to-infant attachment. This critical period has been observed in animals. Common maternal behavior in postnatal contact has been observed in humans. Bowlby has posited that the instinctual responses of infants evoke maternal behaviors in the mother. Ainsworth identified patterns of behavior in infants which seemed to mediate attachment. Harlow's research with infant rhesus monkeys supported the importance of social and emotional contact. The post partum separation of mothers and infants in hospitals that began in the United States at the turn of the century has become the subject of recent studies. The effects of separation on the mother have been measured in terms of behavioral responsiveness to the infant during an interaction event, such as nursing. Implications of this research into the importance of post partum interaction are discussed. (Author/SB)

This paper explores the effects of infant predominant state of arousal upon very early mother-infant interaction, through observation of a group of 20 healthy 3-day-old nursery roommates and their mothers during hospital feeding sessions. In an experimental procedure involving a modified time-sampling technique, two observers simultaneously recorded the occurrence of an array of variables on printed, precoded forms. In addition to infant initial and predominant state, behaviors observed included a variety of maternal and neonatal behaviors. Repeated measures analyses of variance were performed for the dependent variables, with significant differences obtained for specific infant sucking behaviors, maternal stimulation behaviors and social-visual behaviors. Infant predominant state, in the earliest interactions, appears to be a very strong predeterminant of maternal behavior and of neonate-mother interaction. The comparison of group differences in patterns of neonate-mother interaction reveals the predominance of social interaction for alert neonates and their mothers, while the feeding process itself was predominant for sleepy neonates and their mothers. It is suggested that effects of infant predominant state have profound implications for the development of the early mother-infant relationship, particularly when feeding is done under restrictions of hospital schedules. Possible advantages are seen in rooming-in accommodations for mother and neonate. (BF)

The purposes of this study are (1) to analyze learning ability in newborns using heart rate responses to auditory temporal conditioning and (2) to correlate these with measures on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. Twenty normal neonates were tested using the Brazelton Scale on the third day of life. They were also given a learning task, which consisted of a temporal conditioning paradigm with a slow-rise, 75 db tone played for 5 seconds every 25 seconds, 10 times. Responses to the tones were measured by instantaneous, beat-to-beat heart rate, and learning was measured by mean heart rate change and slope computed on the period following the last stimulus when a tone would have been expected (response to the test trial). Results indicate that the 3-day-old baby whose heart rate indicates response to a temporal learning situation is older in gestational age than babies who do not indicate response, and is able to control his psychological state, but shows signs of neurological immaturity. He tends to be less responsive in situations of human closeness including orienting, alertness and cuddliness as measured by the Brazelton Scale. (Author/SB)

This research project was designed to determine whether 1-week-old neonates would indicate biological recognition of their mothers. Biological recognition is defined as the particular configuration of sensory, kinesthetic, and motor cues and the temporal patterning of these cues which characterizes infants' exchange processes with their caregivers. Participants were five dyads composed of white, working class, multiparous mothers and their female offspring. All dyads were provided with hospital rooming-in within the first 24 hours after delivery and the mother was the sole caretaker throughout the period of this study. All neonates were considered normal and were on a demand bottle feeding schedule. Study participants were observed in their homes for one feeding session on postnatal days 6, 7, and 9. Baseline data were collected in the first session. In the second and third sessions, data were collected while the mothers were wearing either a flesh-colored mask with eyeholes or a gauze drape with no eyeholes. The results indicated that the response to the masks began only when the neonate was settled into the customary position and about to begin feeding and that the response to the two masks differed. It was found that the general response to the flesh-colored mask was distress and active avoidance while the response to the gauze mask tended to be distress and passive avoidance. (JMB)

This study attempts to evaluate procedures for studying hemispheric differences in newborn human infants and to determine what acoustic characteristics of speech sounds will trigger a left hemisphere (LH) repsonse. Within 48 hours of birth, 14 neonates were individually administered five aural stimuli which comprised two speech syllables, two nonspeech stimuli, and a 500 Hz tone. These stimuli were presented individually to the infants, and corresponding auditory evoked potentials (AEP) were measured by means of recording electrodes on left and right temporal areas of the infant's brain. Factor analysis was used to isolate the minimum number of AEP components which accounted for the majority of the variance. Four factors were found which together accounted for 96% of the variance. The results offer further evidence to support the idea that hemispheric differences are present during early infancy and that there are AEP differences between male and female infants. Although the study failed to demonstrate acoustic factors which trigger differential hemishperic responding, discrete components of the AEP responses were identified which were responsive to specific aspects of the acoustic stimuli. Information concerning temporal differences in the processing of these elements was also obtained. (GO)

The performances of three groups of neonates on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale were compared to determine if cultural differences exist. Subjects were 90 full term, healthy infants; 30 born in Puerto Rico, 30 black and 30 white born in Florida who were administered the scale within the first two days of life. Eight summary variables based on the four a priori dimensions of interactive processes, motoric processes, state organization, and physiological organization were selected. For each summary variable a mean score was calculated after having recoded the items comprising each cluster on the same direction. The three groups of neonates were compared by computing a one way analysis of variance for each variable. Results showed main effects for six of the summary variables indicating the existence of cultural differences between Puerto Rican and black and white North American newborns. Puerto Rican babies had better orienting and following, were easier to console, and more capable of controlling their physiological response to stress. Results are discussed in terms of cultural expectations, mother/infant interaction, and infant adaptation to environment. (SB)

The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale was administered to 143 healthy newborns. Infants were divided into average-superior and worrisome groups based on the rating of their performance on the "a priori" dimensions and overall profile. Twelve risk variables were entered into a stepwise discriminant analysis for each dimension and the overall profile. Each dimension was best predicted by a different combination of risk variables whose weights also varied across dimensions. Birthweight contributed to four of the discriminant analyses and was the single most powerful predictor for the dimension of motoric processes and the overall profile. The results indicate that the Brazelton Scale is differentially sensitive to factors associated with risk in the newborn and that the prediction of neonatal behavior can be increased by looking at combinations of variables rather than at single variables. (Author/MS)

This paper discusses recent studies of the adult visual evoked potential (VEP) which have indicated that specific components of the complex waveform obtained are related to the three basic color processes, and that these components interact in ways that seem to agree with opponent-colors phenomena. The components identified as being related to the three processes have time characteristics comparable to the relative time courses of the perceptual color responses, with red being the fastest, followed by green, and blue being the slowest to develop. In a study now in progress these techniques are being applied to a group of term infants. Preliminary results are discussed briefly. Findings seem to indicate that the technique evolved for the study of color in the normal adult can also be used for all age levels--thus to be possibly a valuable way of monitoring the development of color vision in the child. (MS)

The effects of obstetrical medication on neonatal behavior were studied using a sample of 64 Israeli infants from medicated and non-medicated mothers. Most medicated mothers received a base dose of 75 mg. of Meperidine plus a base dose of 25 mg. of Phenergan. Other drugs used included Demerol, Valium, Butalgan, Pitocin, Pantopon, Trilene, Naline, and Torecon. Few significant behavioral differences (as measured by the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale) were detected in the first. month of life, and at 3 months of age there was no difference in performance on the motor and mental scales of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. Comparative analyses using samples of American and Uruguayan infants and additional data from other studies of American newborns led to the conclusion that light levels of obstetrical medication do not appear to have significant effects on neonatal behavior. It is noted, however, that this conclusion may well be qualified by some initial population differences, by the measurements commonly used in the studies reviewed, and possibly by critical cut-off points dividing the levels of medication that will and will not affect neonatal behavior. It is recommended that, until more is known, mothers should use as little obstetrical medication as possible. A number of tables are included. (Author/MS)

Participants of a conference dealing with problems of maternal and neonatal narcotic addiction discussed issues regarding treatment of pregnant addicts and their children and considered steps that could be taken to address the issues. The subject areas covered were followup evaluation, treatment procedures and models, development of standardized instruments for measurement of neonates, child development, parent training, and training and technical assistance needs. Research papers included in the proceedings are: An Overview of the Hutzel Hospital Program; Some Measures of Parenting Behavior for Addicted and Nonaddicted Mothers; Quality of Prenatal Treatment of Narcotic Addicted Women as a Factor in Neonatal Outcome; Management of Drug Dependent Pregnancy and Effects on Neonatal Outcome; Role of Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Drugs and Their Metabolites in Maternal-Neonatal Studies; Management of Pediatric Medical Problems in the Addicted Household; Developmental Findings with Infants Born to Mothers on Methadone Maintenance; Neonatal Narcotic Withdrawal Index: A Quantitative Method for Evaluation of Narcotic Abstinence on the Newborn; Developmental Assessment of All Infants Born to the Family Care Program, 1975-1976; Team Practice with Pregnant Addicts and Addicted Mothers; Monitoring and Evaluating Comprehensive Care of Addicted Families; and Investigating Treatment Outcomes: A Who Done It Model. (JL)

This paper reports the major findings and interprets the results of longitudinal and cross-sectional exPeriments concerning the development of visual accommodation in infants 1 to 3 months of age. The stimulus was a high-contrast, random checkerboard which was presented at three different distances from the infants (25, 50 or 100 cm). The physical size of the target was varied from distance to distance. A form of dynamic retinoscopy was used to determine the distance to which the infants appeared to be focused. Results indicated that in the second and third months improvement in visual accommodation had occurred. Validity of results were checked in a second experiment with a different procedure. Results agreed with those of the first experiment. Some accommodative capability, poor and possibly stimulus dependent, was observed among 3- and 4-week-olds. The common view of accommodation as a control system hypothetically consisting of sensory and motor components is questioned. While indirect evidence suggests that the motor hypothesis is inexact, results of these studies support the sensory hypothesis. Early inability to accommodate accurately results in a large part from an inability to detect the consequences of a focusing error. Neonates and 1-month-olds appear to see equally unclearly across a range of distances. (Author/RH)

This symposium presentation outlines the activity of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in regulating the use during pregnancy and lactation of drugs which affect the fetus and neonate. When presented with an unexpected adverse effect of a drug or of a class of drugs, the FDA can take several steps. These steps include ordering total removal from the market, restricting use, issuing warning statements and recommendations, providing information through official publications of the FDA, and other educational efforts. Identifying subtle adverse drug reactions is a difficult problem. Epidemiologic, prospective, retrospective, and animal studies are used. Since 1962, the FDA has required that safety studies be conducted in animals before a new drug is introduced into human subjects. Before any drug may be administered to subjects in whom there is a potential for pregnancy, teratology studies in at least two species of animals must be completed. While reproduction studies are designed to disclose teratogenic, direct toxic, gross behavioral and various other effects of the drug on the fetus or the young, they are not directed toward the detection of subtle neurological defects that may not become manifest until some time after birth. Frequently, replication of results of animal test studies is not easily obtained. (Author/RH)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among maternal and neonatal characteristics in two groups of women, those who had participated in childbirth education class (CE) and those who had not, and their newborn children. Two groups of eight mothers and their first born infants, matched on several demographic and medical factors, were observed during a scheduled feeding session 2 to 3 days after birth. Maternal sensitivity and provision of stimulation were rated. Infants' responsivity was rated during feeding and assessed by means of a Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. Overall, sensitive mothers tended to have responsive infants. CE mothers did not provide different types or amounts of stimulation to their infants but were rated as more sensitive. Patterns of correlations suggested that the more sensitive rating was a result of these mothers' basing their behavior on the infants' specific behaviors shown during the feeding session, rather than on more global infant characteristics. Four tables present data. (Author/BH)

This study followed the development of visual preferences in a single infant from birth to 10 weeks of age. The stimuli used were 5 x 10 item arrays of squares of lines in which a 3 x 3 target matrix of the other figure type (line or square) was embedded. The direction of first fixation and the total time spent looking at each side were determined by direct observation of the infant's eyes. Half of the stimulus cards contained black figures on a white background, half white figures on a black background. A brightness preference would be indicated by fixation on lines on white cards, and on squares on black cards. Preference for high contour density would lead to fixation on the squares on both types of cards. Control cards on which no target matrix appeared were used to determine whether response biases were present. The results indicate an abrupt shift from brightness to contour preference at 5 to 6 weeks of age, consistent with other evidence for a major reorganization of behavior at this time. Furthermore, these changes in visual behavior were found to coincide with changes in the distribution of time spent in different behavioral states. Figures present stimulus materials and findings. (Author/BH)

Effects of maternal-neonatal extended contact or separation were examined in 76 children (8 to 10 years old), five of whom were receiving special education services, and 28 who had been retained in their grade. Of the five Ss requiring special services, three were classified as slow learners and two as speech impaired, two conditions linked by previous research to deprived maternal-neonatal contact. Deprived contact was also a prediction of grade retention. In total, 50% of Ss born at a hospital enforcing mother-baby separation totaling several days required specific educational intervention. Incidence was even higher (65%) for males born at that hospital. (CL)

Statistics show that the improvement in the U.S. infant mortality rate began slowing down in 1981 and completely ended in 1985; this has been reflected in a significant increase in the percentage of infants born prematurely and with low birth weight. Increased attention is being given to the effects of maternal behavior during pregnancy, and inadequate prenatal care is associated with many poor birth and postnatal outcomes. The hypothesis of one longitudinal study of 100 pregnant Black and Caucasian lower- and middle-class women is that the use of prenatal health services is related to women's beliefs concerning their control over their pregnancy and birth outcomes. The model underlying this study predicts that pregnant women high in internality will use prenatal health services at an optimum level, adhere to recommended prenatal health behavior guidelines, and experience good pregnancy and birth outcomes. The study uses the Pregnancy Belief Scales, which explore pregnant women's degree of perceived control or internality about pregnancy and birth outcomes, and the extent to which pregnant women believe that chance or powerful others affect their pregnancy and birth outcomes. Early findings from the study suggest that pregnancy-related health beliefs are consistent and stable indicators of pregnancy and birth outcomes. (LB)

This paper discusses issues connected with the reliability of the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) in terms of behavior prediction, neonatal behavioral organization and stability, and consequent implications for study of newborns. Discussion focuses on: (1) reliability, and (2) prediction and neonatal assessment. The NBAS is seen as a basically reliable instrument, yet its predictive reliability for stability of behavior is questioned. The view that environmental influence on developmental outcome is minimal or uniform is contested. Need is seen for specifying the functional interaction between variables which determine developmental outcomes. Development of improved measures of the range and variability of neonatal behavior is discussed. It is noted that the NBAS tester is trained to elicit and score the best observable behavior, rather than the characteristic (or modal) behavior, particularly on orientation items. Possibilities for measuring discrepancies in scores between best and characteristic behavior are discussed. It is contended that the central issue in neonatal assessment is not the identification of individual temperamental characteristics, but rather the identification of environmental features which interact to produce developmental outcomes. A number of tables are included. (Author/BF)

This study examined mother/child interactions during feedings for full-term, healthy premature, and sick premature newborns. Ten first-born infants in each of these categories were observed with their parents once in the hospital, twice at home, and once in the laboratory during the first 4 months of life. Observations focused on the position in which the infant was held; whether infants' eyes were open or closed; vocalizing, touching, movements, amount of fretting, crying and mutual gaze. The Brazelton Scales of Neonatal Assessment were administered to the infants just prior to the first newborn feeding. Data from the Brazelton Scales suggested that the fewer medical problems the baby had, the more likely the baby was to be alert for prolonged periods, responsive to social stimuli, and able to signal distress clearly by crying. Feeding data revealed several trends. At the first feeding, full-term infants were held close to the mother's body more than either sick or healthy prematures. At the 4-month lab visit, there were no differences among the groups on this variable. During the newborn feedings, parents of full-term infants touched and vocalized to their infants more than parents in the other two groups. These differences were no longer evident at 4 months. The two premature groups showed more behavior change from home to lab at 4 months of age than did the full-term group. No clear relationship between fussing during feedings and infants' medical status could be identified. (JMB)

This speech addresses the "What,""Why," and "How" of Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Training for school psychologists. "What" concerns the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, its administration, and what it assesses. Based on the best performance, the infant's score on this scale is scored in the context of six states of consciousness (from deep sleep to wide awake and crying). The scale provides an opportunity to assess neurological integrity, the relative strength and sensitivity of the infant's response modalities, and patterns of interaction with other persons. "Why" concerns the rationale for the test's use by school psychologists. Bonding and attachment between parent and child can be enhanced by using the test to introduce the parents to the child in the first days of life. This aspect of the test is particularly helpful in instances in which the parents are at risk to contribute to failure to thrive as well as in those instances in which the child is at risk. School psychologists trained in this technique can greatly influence the relationship between parent and child and can also participate in intervention research. "How" focuses on suggestions for acquiring training and reliability certification in the administration and interpretation of the scale. While formal courses are available, it is also possible to train oneself with the cooperation of a local hospital and obtain certification through Children's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. Once this level of proficiency is attained, the psychologist can share his or her skills by teaching others. (CB)

Discussed are attempts made by staff at the Community Mental Health Center of the New Jersey School of Medicine to develop an ongoing working relationship with pediatric neonatologists, house staff, and nursing staff in order to promote their attunement to mental health needs and obtain access to their expertise. After a description of the center and the dimensions of infant mental health care, the document provides examples of cooperation in clinical work and ways of building liaison and overcoming conflict. Building the working relationship is a complex process in which all sides try to balance the common interests in tasks, school, and clientele against the special interests of departmental, professional, and individual success and recognition. Cooperation in this process appears possible only by making continued helpful nonpartisan contributions and by displaying genuine openness in communications, in the hope that these efforts will be reciprocated. (RH)

This study examined motor, academic, and behavioral performance of 38 nine-year-old Australian children who had been described as biologically "at-risk" from neonatal conditions. In addition to individual tests taken by subjects, school progress questionnaires were administered to teachers and parents. Subjects were found to require a greater amount of special education assistance than their classmates, and teachers rated them as having significantly more difficulty concentrating and following directions. Writing problems were also prevalent. Results indicated a need for attention to be given in areas of potential difficulty for these children and for specific teaching strategies to be learned to compensate for concentration and attention deficits which may be present. Since the"at-risk" category is quite broad, it is suggested that future research differentiate socioeconomic factors influencing the child's development in addition to neonatal impairments. Contains 22 references. (PB)

The neonatal cerebral disorders might deform the brain shape, and reduce the cerebral function. For the diagnosis of cerebral disorders, it is effective to measure cerebral volume and surface area using head magnetic resonance (MR) image. The measurement should require a brain segmentation process. However, there are few studies for neonatal brain. This study proposes a brain segmentation method for a neonatal brain. In this study, we propose a shape and appearance knowledge based brain segmentation (SABS) method. SABS method segments a brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) region by using a brain atlas model. Next, it classifies a brain and CSF region into some classes by using Bayesian classification with Gaussian mixture model, and optimizes the brain surface by using fuzzy rule-based active surface model method. Experimental results in 14 neonatal subjects (revised age between −1 month and 1 month) showed that the proposed method segmented the brain region with higher accuracy than the conventional methods. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Ambulances are not ideal for intensive care, and in particular not for neonatal intensive care. Transport is associated with complications which can affect the babies' mortality and morbidity. Common for the trials done to analyse the problems in various types of neonatal ambulances, is the lack of a baseline measurement, a frame of reference, and thereby comparison with other studies is not possible. When ambulances are tested in various road environments, these different environments can have crucial impact on the results. For instance if one ambulance is tested on a gravel road in a rainy weather and the result is compared with another ambulance tested on a smooth highway, their frame of reference will be very different. This paper introduces a reference method for quality assessment of sound and vibration levels in neonatal ambulances and describes the results of testing the method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]