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Instructors manage several tensions as they support students to engage in mathematical disciplinary practices such as defining, conjecturing, and proving. These tensions include honoring students' contributions while simultaneously apprenticing students to following mathematical norms. I present a case study of a teacher-researcher in a laboratory setting who was particularly skilled at this endeavor. I found that the teacher-researcher engaged in a pattern in which the teacher-researcher cycled between inquiring into the students' thinking about their draft of a definition, conjecture, or proof and then engaged in scaffolding, including scaffolding of mathematical norms. I exemplify this pattern with an episode of students writing a conjecture equivalent to the Archimedean Property that served as a warrant for one of their proofs. I close the paper discussing complexities of apprenticeship into the norms of the discipline. [For the complete proceedings, see ED657822.]

This paper characterizes the engagement of two groups of students in a Precalculus course at a four-year public university. A set of "Multiple Solutions Activities" was designed for the course to expose groups of students to alternative solution methods, allowing instructors to explicitly negotiate productive norms to foster students' flexible knowledge. Over the duration of the semester, the groups developed contrasting social and sociomathematical norms. One group's norms seem to be particularly influenced by students' experience taking the same course the prior semester in a more traditional format. [For the complete proceedings, see ED629884.]

Minority studies are underrepresented in gifted and talented education programs across the nation and the methods used to identify students for advanced services may be the issue. This study examined the Scales for Identifying Gifted Students (SIGS), a set of nationally normed behavior rating scales, for the purpose of updating the instrument. The researchers investigated model fit indices on the existing scales, determined whether to remove or update items, and investigated potential item bias. Additionally, a representative sample was established for the purpose of creating revised norms for the updated instrument, called the SIGS-2.

We report on the development and piloting of a method that provides a sufficient condition for confirming that an observed regularity in a classroom is a norm. The method we describe is a refinement of the breaching experiment technique (Garfinkel, 1963; Mehan, 1979) that uses random assignment to experimental conditions as a means to facilitate controlled comparisons between participants' reactions to different episodes of instruction. We use this method to confirm the existence of normative ways that teachers scrutinize the details of proofs in geometry. [For the complete proceedings, see ED597799.]

Research uncovering different images of Intercultural Education seems to be relevant in various contexts. This paper describes and compares two, the Swiss and the Serbian contexts; two countries with very different histories and with very different political and social constellations. For the Swiss context, migration flows have changed dramatically in the last decades. Migration is qualitatively different than migration 20 years ago. Whereas two decades ago, migrants came largely from socio-economically deprived classes looking for low-skilled jobs, migrants come nowadays from very diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, including more and more highly educated specialists with high affinity to educational issues. Therefore, Intercultural Education is no longer limited to issues of integration of disadvantaged minority children. Consequently, Intercultural Education is prompted to consider different constellations and challenges in schools than 20 years ago. However, teacher educators, pre-service and in-service teachers might still cultivate the image of an "immigrant child" as 20 years ago. In the "Serbian context" teachers' attitudes towards social and educational inclusion are recognized as an especially strong challenge (Pantic, Closs & Ivoševic, 2010, p. 64). This challenge reflects the fact that Serbia has undergone various transitions: from a socialist country (with a strong emphasis on "homogeneity" and "uniformity") to an era of war (with its strong focus on ethnicity) and later on to the post-war constellation (dealing with requirements of the European Union that puts a stronger focus on the recognition of plurality and heterogeneity). Focus on "diversity" or "plurality", traditional views emphasize more the notion of "homogeneity". Pupil diversity was not addressed in teacher training and mainstream schools and teachers were, therefore, never equipped with the knowledge, strategies and tools to address differences at all, and even less to address them inclusively (Macura-Milovanovic, Pantic & Closs, 2012; Zlatkovic & Petrovic, 2011). These two very different contexts illustrate why it seems relevant to consider constructivist approaches in Intercultural Education and, therefore, to uncover different images of Intercultural Education. The relevance of uncovering these images of Intercultural Education is evident both on a theoretical and a practical level. The specific challenge in the school context seems twofold: First, there is the challenge to deal with cultural difference and to include the diverse cultural backgrounds; and secondly, there is a duty and a mission of modern schools to function as norm-setters. Intercultural competence of teachers has specifics that have largely remained undefined until now. The knowledge about deeply held beliefs then is a basic prerequisite to prepare pre-service teachers for dealing effectively with culturally diverse settings. It allows for a better understanding of teachers' role conceptions and of the subjective meaning, importance and challenges regarding teaching in a culturally diverse setting. This allows movement of Intercultural education training from mostly ineffective top-down training to a need-based support of teachers. Uncovering images of Intercultural Education plays, therefore, an important role for preparing teachers to deal with the challenge of providing quality education for all and of preparing future generations for a just, democratic and pluralistic society. [For complete volume, see ED567040.]

This volume of the 30th annual proceedings of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education conference presents: plenary panel papers; research forum papers; short oral communication papers; and poster presentation papers from the meeting. Information relating to discussion groups and working sessions is also provided. Plenary lecture papers include: (1) Mathematics, didactical engineering and observation (G. Brousseau); (2) A Semiotic View of the Role of Imagery and Inscriptions in Mathematics Teaching and Learning (N. Presmeg); (3) School Mathematics as a Developmental Activity (S. Stech); and (4) PME 1 to 30--Summing Up And Looking Ahead (P. Tsamir and D. Tirosh). Plenary panel papers include: (1) The Necessity of Collaborations between Mathematicians and Mathematics Educators (Z. Gooya); (2) Generic versus Subject Specific Pedagogy (S. Groves); (3) How Can Schools Put Mathematics in Their Centre? (K. Krainer); and (4) Mathematics in the Centre (T. Rojano). The first research forum (RF01) includes: (1) Seeing More and Differently (L. Brown and A. Coles); (2) Joint Reflection as a Way to Cooperation between Researchers and Teachers (A. Hospesova, J. Machackova, and M. Ticha); (3) Opening the Space of Possibilities (A. Lebethe, N. Eddy, and K. Bennie); (4) Diverse Roles, Shared Responsibility (J. Novotna and A. Pelantova); (5) Research with Teachers (L. Poirier); (6) Developing a Voice (G. Rosen); and (7) Learning about Mathematics and about Mathematics Learning through and in Collaboration (V. Zack and D. Reid). The second research forum (RF02) includes: Exemplification in Mathematics Education (L. Bills, T. Dreyfus, J. Mason, P. Tsamir, A. Watson, and O. Zaslavsky). The third research forum (RF03) includes: (1) Conceptual Change in Mathematics Learning (D. Tirosh and P. Tsamir); (2) Aspects of Students' Understanding of Rational Numbers (X. Vamvakoussi and S. Vosniadou); (3) Conceptual Change in the Number Concept (K. Merenluoto and E. Lehtinen); (4) The Linear Imperative (W. Van Dooren, D. De Bock, and L. Verschaffel); (5) Conceptual Change in Advanced Mathematical Thinking (I. Biza and T. Zachariades); (6) Students' Interpretation of the Use of Literal Symbols in Algebra (K. P. Christou and S. Vosniadou); (7) The Dilemma of Mathematical Intuition in Learning (L. B. Resnick); and (8) Designing for Conceptual Change (B. Greer). Short oral communications papers include: (1) The Mathematics Teachers' Conceptions about the Possible Uses of Learning Objects from RIVED-Brazil Project (C. A. A. P. Abar and L. S. de Assis); (2) On the Way to Understanding Integration (S. Abdul-Rahman); (3) The Impact of Graphic-Calculator Use on Bedouin Students' Learning Functions (M. Abu-Naja and M. Amit); (4) How to Put It All Together? (M. Alagic); (5) Reading Mathematics Textbook as a Storybook (S. E. Anku); (6) Naming and Referring to Quantities When Solving Word Problems in a Spreadsheet Environment (D. Arnau and L. Puig); (7) If It Divides by 4, It Must Divide by 8 (J. Back); (8) Universal and Existential Mathematical Statements (R. Barkai, T. Dreyfus, D. Tirosh, and P. Tsamir); (9) Situtations, Linear Functions and the "Real World" (G. Benke); (10) The Relationship between High School Mathematics and Career Choices among High Achieving Young Women (S. B. Berenson, J. J. Michael, and M. Vouk); (11) Students' Understanding of Ambiguity in Symbols (K. P. Blair); (12) Reform-Oriented Teaching Practices and the Influence of School Context (J. Bobis and J. Anderson); (13) Approaching Linear (In)Dependence with Example-Generation (M. Bogomolny); (14) Metaphors in Teacher's Discourse (J. Bolite Frant, V. Font, and J. Acevedo); (15) Designing Instructional Programs that Facilitate Increased Reflection (J. Bowers and S. Nickerson); (16) Conformism in Teaching Mathematics (A. Braverman, P. Samovol, and M. Applebaum); (17) Constructing Multiplication (J. Brocardo, L. Serrazina, and I. Rocha); (18) The Trigonometric Connection (S. A. Brown); (19) Student Beliefs and Attitudes from Poetry Writing in Statistics (M. Bulmer, B. Lea, and K. Rolka); (20) The Teaching of Proof in Textbooks (R. Cabassut); (21) Classroom: A Learning Context for Teachers (A. P. Canavarro); (22) An Investigation of Differences in Performance in Mathematics between Parallel Students and Normal Entry Students at the Polytechnic--University of Malawi (P. C. Chamdimba); (23) A Study on Eliciting the Formula for the Area of Triangle from Students' Structuring of Tile Arrays and Figure Reconstructions (J.-H. Chen and S.-K. S. Leung); (24) Decision Making at Uncertainty (E. Chernoff and R. Zazkis); (25) A Study on Implementating Inquiry-Based Teaching to Facilitate Secondary School Students' Learning in the Retaking Mathematics Course (E.-T. Chin, C.-Y. Chen, C.-Y. Liu, and C.-P. Lin); (26) Girls Excelled Boys in Learning Geometric Transformation Using Tessellations (S. Choi-Koh and H. Ko); (27) A National Survey of Young Children's Understanding of Basic Time Concepts (J. Chung and C.-C. Yang); (28) An Exploration of the Mathematical Literacy of Irish Student Primary School Teachers (D. Corcoran); (29) Mathematics Teachers' Knowledge and Practice (J. P. da Ponte and O. Chapman); (30) Psychological Aspects of Students Thinking at the Stage of Graphical Representation in the Process of Investigation of Functions (M. Dagan); (31) Formative Feedback and Mindful Teaching of Undergraduate Mathematics (G. E. Davis and M. A. McGowen); (32) Mathematics Education in the South and Western Pacific (A. J. Dawson); (33) Teacher Meditation of Technology-Supported Graphing Activity (R. Deaney, S. Hennessy, and K. Ruthven); (34) A Categorization of Difficulties Encountered by 13-to-15-Year-Olds while Selecting Inverse Algebraic Operation (A. Demby); (35) "It's Infinity" (T. Dooley); (36) What Is to Be Known? (J.-P. Drouhard); (37) "The Most Normal Path" (M. Droujkova, S. Berenson, G. Mojica, K. Slaten, and H. Wilson); (38) Exploratory Mathematics Talk in Friendship Groups (J.-A. Edwards); (39) Conceptual Basis of Proof (L. D. Edwards); (40) In-Service Education under Market Conditions (L. R. Ejersbo); (41) Statements of Problems and Students' Choices between Linear or Non-Linear Models (C. Esteley, M. Villarreal, and H. Alagia); (42) Equity and Quality Mathematics Education (G. Frempong); (43) Is Sensitivity for the Complexity of Mathematics Teaching Measurable? (T. Fritzlar); (44) By Using the Outcome-Based Approach to Strengthen Students' Learning Capabilities (A. T.-F. Fung and K.-M. Leung); (45) Patterns of Students' Interactions while Doing Geometric Proofs in Groups (F. L. Gallos); (46) Dialogue: A Tool for Creating Mathematical Proof (S. Gholamazad); (47) Beginning Teachers in Mathematical Inquiry (B. Graves and C. Suurtamm); (48) Learning Trajectory of Fraction in Elementary Education Mathematics (S. Hadi); (49) Elementary Education Students' Affect towards and Advancement in Mathematics (M. S. Hannula, R. Kaasila, E. Pehkonen, and A. Laine); (50) Pre-Service Mathematics Teachers (B. Hartter and J. Olson); (51) Effectiveness of Video-Case Based Elementary Mathematics Teacher Training (R. Huang and J. Bao); (52) Improving Students' Level of Geometrical Thinking through Teacher's Regulating Roles (M. Imprasitha); (53) What's the Connection between Ears and Dice (I. Jan and M. Amit); (54) Tactile Perception in 3D Geometry (D. Jirotkova and G. Littler); (55) High Achieving Students' Conceptions of Limits (K. Juter); (56) Reading Visual Representations of Data with Kindergarten Children (S. Kafoussi); (57) Students' Use of Gestures to Support Mathematical Understandings in Geometry (L. H. Kahn); (58) Mathematical Abilities for Developing Understanding of Formal Proof (E. Kapetanas and T. Zachariades); (59) An Analysis of Connections between Errors and Prior Knowledge in Decimal Calculation (J. Kim, J. Pang, and K. Song); (60) Insights into Primary Teachers' Interpretations of Students' Written Answers in Mathematics (A. Klothou and H. Sakonidis); (61) The Role of Proof (S. Kmetic); (62) A Comparison of Mathematically Gifted and Non-Gifted Students in Intuitively Based, Probabilistic Misconception (E. S. Ko, B. H. Choi, and E. H. Lee); (63) Exploring Teaching and Learning of Letters in Algebra (A. Kullberg and U. Runesson); (64) Teaching Mathematics to Indigenous Students and Pupils from Multicultural Backgrounds (E. K. Lam); (65) Limitations of a Partitive Fraction Scheme in Developing Multiplicative Reasoning about Fractions (H. S. Lee); (66) Teachers' Reflection and Self-Assessment through the Use of a Videotape of Their Own Mathematics Instruction (S. Lee and J. Pang); (67) A Case Study on the Introducing Methods of the Irrational Numbers Based on the Freudenthal's Mathematising Instruction (Y. R. Lee); (68) A Case Study of an Elementary School Teacher's Professional Development on Mathematics Teaching in Context (Y.-C. Leu, C.-H. Hsu, and W.-L. Huang); (69) "But after All, We'll Need This for School" (N. Leufer and S. Prediger); (70) Developing Primary Students' Cognitive Skills through Interactive Mathematics Lessons (K.-M. Leung); (71) A Study on the Effects of Multiple Representation Curriculum on Fraction Number Learning Schemes for Fourth Grade Children (S.-K. S. Leung and I.-J. Wang); (72) Teachers' Knowledge about Definitions (E. Levenson and T. Dreyfus); (73) Supporting Teachers on Maintaining High-Level Instructional Tasks in Classroom by Using Research-Based Cases (P.-J. Lin); (74) Towards an Anti-Essentialist View of Technology in Mathematics Education (B. Lins and C. H. de Jesus Costa); (75) Comparing Teaching of Common Mathematical Tasks in Different Countries (G. Littler and M. Tzekaki); (76) New Approach of Neurocognition in Mathematical Education Research and further Implications (C. Liu, F.-L. Lin, and C.-N. Dai); (77) Reasoning and Generalizing about Functional Relationship in a Grade 2 Classroom (S. London McNab); (78) The MathematicalPerformances in Solving the Norming Problem (H.-L. Ma); (79) The Education of Reasoning (E. Macmillan); (80) The Effect of Rephrasing Word Problems on the Achievements of Arab Students in Mathematics (A. Mahajne and M. Amit); (81) An Approach to Eary Algebra Using Technology as an Enhancement (C. A. Maher and G. Gjone); (82) Teachers' Beliefs and Competencies of Creative Mathematical Activities (B. Maj); (83) Manipulative Representation (N. Mark-Zigdon and D. Tirosh); (84) Language, Power and Mathematics Learning (M. Mathye and M. Setati); (85) Children Learning as Participation in Web-Based Communities of Practice (J. F. Matos and M. Santos); (86) Recognizing Mathematical Competences (J. F. Matos, M. Santos, and M. Mesquita); (87) Mathematics Teachers' Preparation Program (A. S. Md. Yunus, R. Hamzah, H. Ismail, S. K. S. Hussain, and M. R. Ismail); (88) Mathematics Register Acquisition (T. Meaney); (89) Development of Spatial Abilities (H. Meissner); (90) An Encounter between Queer Theory and Mathematics Education (H. Mendick); (91) Establishing a Mathematics Learning Community in the Study of Mathematics for Teaching (J. Mgombelo and C. Buteau); (92) Talking Mathematics in a Second Language (H. Miranda); (93) Objects in Motion (I. Miranda, L. Radford, and J. G. Hernandez); (94) Researching the Appearance of Mathematical Argumentation (C. Misailidou); (95) Teachers' Pedagogical Content Knowledge in the Teaching of Quadrilaterals (I. A. C. Mok and M. Y. H. Park); (96) Out-of-School Experts in Mathematics Classes (J. Monaghan); (97) A Sequel to Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 2003, in Botswana (S. M. Montsho); (98) The Pattern and Structure Mathematics Awareness Project (PASMAP) (J. Mulligan and M. Mitchelmore); (99) Primary Pupils' Mathematics Achievement (C. Opolot-Okurut); (100) Images of Functions Defined in Pieces (R. Ovodenko and P. Tsamir); (101) A Comparative Analysis of Elementary Mathematics Textbooks of Korea and Singapore (J. Pang and H. Hwang); (102) Substitutions on Algebraic Statements, Based on Associations in Natural Reasoning (M. Panizza); (103) Virtual Learning Environments and Primary Teachers' Professional Development (M. C. Penalva-Martinez and C. Rey-Mas); (104) Cypriot Preservice Primary School Teachers' Subject-Matter Knowledge of Mathematics (M. Petrou); (105) Phenomenological Mathematics Teaching (P. Portaankorva-Koivisto); (106) Using the Debate to Educate Future Teachers of Mathematics (J. Proulx); (107) Surprise on the Way from Change of Length to Change of Area (N. Prusak, N. Hada, and R. Hershkowitz); (108) Discovering of Regularity (by 11-Years-Old Children) (M. Pytlak); (109) Using Manipulatives to Teach Students in College Developmental Math Classes about Fractions (S. L. Reynolds and E. B. Uptegrove); (110) Sixth Graders' Ability to Generalize Patterns in Algebra (F. Rivera and J. Rossi Becker); (111) Variety of Representational Environments in Early Geometry (F. Roubicek); (112) From Research on Using Problems Related to Functional Equations as Multifunctional Tools for Revealing Subject Mater Knowledge of Functions in Future Mathematics Teachers (M. Sajka); (113) Expert and Novice Primary Teachers' Intervening in Students' Mathematical Activity (H. Sakonidis, M. Kaldrimidou, and M. Tzekaki); (114) Examining Teachers' Reflections about Mathematics Teaching, Learning, and Assessment (V. M. Santos-Wagner); (115) Analyzing Students' Thought Process in Revealing Correspondence between Formulas and Geometrical Objects (P. Satianov and M. Dagan); (116) "No Need to Explain, We Had the Same" (K. Schreiber); (117) Characteristics of Malaysian Students' Understanding about Functions (S. A. Sh. Abdullah); (118) Mathematical Induction via Conceptual Representation (A. Sharif-Rasslan); (119) Exploring the Meanings of Events in Mathematics Classroom from Learners' Perspective (Y. Shimizu); (120) A Study on the Law of Large Numbers Instruction through Computer Simulation (B.-M. Shin and K.-H. Lee); (121) Mathematics Learning Quality for Gifted Junior High School Students in Taiwan (H.-Y. Shy, C.-H. Liang, and W.-M. Liang); (122) A Preservice Teacher's Growth in Subject Matter Knowledge while Planning a Trigonometry Lesson (K. M. Slaten); (123) Comparing Numbers: Counting-Based and Unit-Based Approaches (H. Slovin); (124) Mathematically Gifted 6th Grade Korean Students' Proof Level for a Geometric Problem (S Song, Y. Chong, J. Yim, and H. Chang); (125) Probability Reasoning Level of Gifted Students in Mathematics (S. Song, K. Lee, G. Na, and D. Han); (126) Analysis of Mathematically Gifted 5th and 6th Grade Students' Process of Solving "Straight Line Peg Puzzle" (S. Song, J. Yim, Y. Chong, and J. Kim); (127) Standard Mathematics Discourses of Developmental Algebra Undergraduates (S. K. Staats); (128) Novice Students, Experienced Mathematicians, and Advanced Mathematical Thinking Processes (E. Stadler); (129) The "Soil" of Extended Problems: The Cultural Background of the Chinese Mathematics Teaching Practice (X. Sun and N.-Y. Wong); (130) Immersion in Mathematical Inquiry: The Experiences of Beginning Teachers (C. Suurtamm and B. Graves); (131) The Whole Idea (S. Tobias); (132) The Teaching Modes (R. A. Tomas Ferreira); (133) Didactic Decisions (J. Trgalova and I. Lima); (134) Evaluating a Large-Scale National Program for Incorporating Computational Technologies to Mathematics Classrooms (M. Trigueros and A. I. Sacristan); (135) Symmetry: Equality or a Dynamic Transformation? (K. Tselepidis and C. Markopoulos); (136) Teaching Children to Count (F. Turner); (137) Student Conceptions and Textbook Messages (B. Ubuz); (138) Students' Errors in Transforming Terms and Equations (A. Ulovec and A. Tollay); (139) Mathematics with Technology (S. Ursini, G. Sanchez, and D. Santos); (140) Francisca Uses Decimal Numbers (M. E. Valedmoros Alvarez and E. F. Ledesma Ruiz); (141) Development of Numerical Estimation in Grade 1 to 3 (M. van Galen and P. Reitsma); (142) Mathematics Education and Neurosciences (MENS) (F. van Nex and T. Gebuis); (143) Symbolizing and Modeling to Promote a Flexible Use of the Minus Sign in Algebraic Operations (J. Vlassis); (144) An Analysis of Preservice Teachers' Estimation Strategies within the Context of Whole Numbers, Fractions, Decimals, and Percents (T. N. Volkova); (145) What Does It Mean to Interpret Students' Talk and Actions? (T. Wallach and R. Even); (146) The Research of Co-Teaching Math between Experienced and Preservice Teachers in Elementary School (J.-H. Wang); (147) The Influence of Teaching on Transforming Math Thinking (T.-Y. Wang and F.-J. Hsieh); (148) Searching for Common Ground (J. Watson, L. Webb, L. King, and P. Webb); (149) Are Beliefs and Practices Congruent or Disjoint? (L. Webb and P. Webb); (150) Working Memory and Children's Mathematics (M. Witt and S. Pickering); (151) Mathematics Education Reform in the United States (T. Wood); (152) A Modeling Perspective on Problem Solving in Students' Mathematics Project (F.-M. Yen and C.-K. Chang); and (153) Development of a Questionnaire to Measure Teachers' Mathematics-Related Beliefs (S.-Y. Yu and C.-K. Chang). Poster presentations include: (1) A Comparative Analysis of Mathematics Achievement and Attitudes of Male and Female Students in Botswana Secondary Schools (A. A. Adeyinka); (2) Logical-Mathematical Learning for Student with Down's Syndrome (R. M. Aguilar, A. Bruno, C. S. Gonzalez, V. Munoz, A. Noda, and L. Moreno); (3) The Math Fair as a Bridge between Mathematics and Mathematics Education, the University and Elementary or Junior High School (M. Beisiegel); (4) One Teaching Episode from a Learner's, an Observer's and a Teacher's Point of View (H. Binterova and J. Novotna); (5) A Framework for Studying Curricular Effects on Students' Learning (J. Cai and J. C. Moyer); (6) Preservice Elementary Teachers' Conceptual Understanding of Word Problems (O. Chapman); (7) Mathematics Education and School Failure (P.Chaviaris and S. Kafoussi); (8) Enhancing the Seventh Graders' Learning on Equality Axiom and Linear Equation through Inquiry-Oriented Teaching and Integrated Mathematics and Science Curriculum (K.-J. Chen, S.-Y. Yu, E.-T. Chin, and H.-L. Tuan); (9) To Conjecture the Staff Development Model of Mathematical Teacher According to Spark's Theory (Y.-T. Chen and S. Leou); (10) Discovery of Implementing Teaching by Discussion in Mathematics Classrooms (J. Chung); (11) Modeling Teachers' Questions in High School Mathematics Classes (S. Dalton, G. Davis, and S. Hegedus); (12) My Assistant, a Didactic Tool of Mathematics for Primary School Teachers (N. de Bengoechea-Olguin); (13) A Model to Interpret Teacher's Practices in Technology-Based Environment (N. C. Dedeoglu); (14) The Gnomon (P. Delikanlis); (15) The Teacher's Proactive Role in the Context of Word Problem Solving by Young Beginners in Algebra (I. Demonty); (16) Students' Geometrical Thinking Development at Grade 8 in Shanghai (L. Ding and K. Jones); (17) An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Learning to Teach Mathematical Writing (H. M. Doerr, K. Chandler-Olcott, and J. O. Masingila); (18) Multiplication Models (D. Droujkov and M. Droujkova); (19) Quantitative Grids and Cyclic Patterns (D. Droujkov and M. Droujkova); (20) Learners' Influence in Computer Environments (M. Droujkova nd D. Droujkov); (21) Alleviating Obstructions to Learning (D. Easdown); (22) Knowledge and Interpretation of Teachers to the School Content of Proportionality (H. Enriquez Ramirez and E. Jimenez de la Rosa Barrios); (23) Mathematical Flexibility in the Domain of School Trigonometry (C. Fi); (24) "Moving Fluidly among Worlds" (S. Gerofsky); (25) Making Practice Studyable (H. Ghousseini and L. Sleep); (26) Cognitive Roots for the Concept of Asymptote (V. Giraldo, M. Chaves, and E. Belfort); (27) Flemish and Spanish High School Students' Mathematics-Related Beliefs Systems (I. M. Gomez-Chacon, P. Op't Eynde, and E. De Corte); (28) Cube Nets (M.Hejny and D. Jirotkova); (29) From Word Notation of Relations between Constants and Unknown to Algebraic Notation (Pretest) (J. Herman); (30) Mathematics and Community Capacity Building (P. Howard and B. Perry); (31) A Study on the Mathematical Thinking in Learning Process (C.J.-Hsieh and F.-J. Hsieh); (32) A Case Study on Pre-Service Teachers Making Mathematical Model of Voronoi-Diagram (C.-T. Hu and T.-Y. Tso); (33) A Fast-Track Approach to Algebra for Adults (R. Hubbard); (34) The Validity of On-Screen Assessment of Mathematics (S. Hughes); (35) After Using Computer Algebra System, Change of Students' Rationales and Writing (I. K. Kim); (36) Using a Socrates' Method in a Course of Mathematics Education for Future Mathematics Teachers (N. H. Kim); (37) Beyond Visual Level (G. Kospentaris and T. Spirou); (38) Videopapers and Professional Development (T. Lima Costa and H. Nascentes Coelho); (39) Concurrent Calibration Design for Mathematics Learning Progress Investigation (C.-J. Lin, P.-H. Hung, and S. Lin); (40) Further Insights into the Proportion Reasoning and the Ratio Concept (C. Liu, F.-L. Lin, W. Kuo, and I.-L. Hou); (41) Coursework Patterns between Mathematics and Science among Secondary Students (X. Ma); (42) Beginning the Lesson (C. Mesiti and D. Clarke); (43) Development of Web Environment for Lower Secondary School Mathematics Teachers with 3D Dynamic Geometry Software (M. Miyazaki, H. Arai, K. Chino, F. Ogihara, Y. Oguchi, and T. Morozumi); (44) The Effect of the Teacher's Mode of Instruction inside Math Classrooms with a Computer (S. Mochon and M. E. F. Olvera); (45) Mathematics Education in Rural Schools (J. Mousley and G. Marks); (46) Mathematically Gifted Students' Conception of Infinity (G. Na and E. Lee); (47) A Good Moment in Time to Stop "Shying Away from the Nature of Our Subject"? (E. Nardi); (48) Toward Real Change through Virtual Communities (K. T. Nolan); (49) Powerful Ideas, Learning Stories and Early Childhood Mathematics (B. Perry, E.Harley, and S. Dockett); (50) Tracing the Development of Knowledge about Mathematics Teaching (C. Rey-Mas and C. Penalva-Martinez); (51) Preschool Children's Number Sense (L. de C. Ribeiro and A. G. Spinillo); (52) A First Approach to Students' Learning of Mathematical Contents (G. Sanchez-Matamoros and I. Escudero); (53) Young Children's Mathematics Education within a Philosophical Community of Inquiry (A. Sawyer); (54) Learning Mathematics in Austria (H. Schwetz and G. Benke); (55) The Influence of a Mathematician on His Students' Perceptions (A. Sharif-Rasslan); (56) Analysis on the Algebraic Generalization of Some Korean Mathematically Promising Elementary Students (S. Song, J. Yim, Y. Chong, and E. Park); (57) Students' Linguistic Strategies for Shared Authority in Undergraduate Algebra Discussions (S. Staats); (58) Contrasting Decimal Conceptions of Adult and School Students (K. Stacey and V. Steinle); (59) Mathematical Writing and the Development of Understanding (N. Stehlikova); (60) Enhancing Teachers' Professional Development through Developing Teaching Norms Based on Developing Classroom Learning Norms (W.-H. Tsai); (61) The Features in the Process of Mathematical Modeling with Dynamic Geometric Software (T.-Y. Tso); (62) Finding Instructive Characteristics of Picture Books that Support the Learning of Mathematics (S. van den Boogaard and M. van den Heuvel-Panhuizen); (63) High School Course Pathways of High Achieving Girls (P. H. Wilson, G. F. Mojica, K. M. Slaten, and S. B. Berenson); (64) The Developmental Stages of Representations of Simple Regular Space Figures of Elementary School Students (D.-B. Wu, J.-L. Ma, and D.-C. Chen); (65) How to Assess Mathematical Thinking? (S. Yesildere and E. B. Turnuklu); and (66) Lasting Effects of a Professional Development Initiative (S. Zehetmeier). (Individual papers contain references.)

This paper explores Max Weber's study of the origins of the secularization of the Puritan work ethic and examines the hybridized category of secular science expert. The hybrid construct provides an opening for the critical analysis of the concrete activity of development from two perspectives, the structural and the individual. The individual perspective is the subject of the paper. Sections of the paper include: (1) "The Idea of Expert and the Context of Development: The Global Tour of Ascetic Rationality"; (2) "The Expert and the Assignment Context: The Voyage from Secular Mechanics to Cargo of Values"; (3) "The Possibility of Transformative Development: Ethics Regained"; (4) "From 'Accidental Expert' to Reflective Ethics"; (5) "The Ethical Education of the Expert: From Consultant to What?" and (6) "Ascetic Rationality Revisited: The Expert Re-educated." Contains a chart on the self-reflection model and 49 references. (EH)

This study sought to identify a norm for teaching development at five different higher education institutions. Identifying institutional norms is important because much of individual behavior in an institution is governed by such norms. Faculty (N=145) at five institutions (a community college district, two liberal arts colleges, a comprehensive university, and a research university) completed a survey about the teaching expectations they perceive from their respective institutions. A perceived norm for teaching development existed at only one of the liberal arts colleges. Examination of the policies at the five institutions revealed that the one institution that exhibited a teaching development norm was also the institution with the strongest policies supportive of the teaching role. Analysis and scoring of institutions on their policies found that only the liberal arts colleges had hiring policies that required a teaching demonstration during the interview process; that two institutions weighed teaching heavily in the tenure granting process; and that all but the urban liberal arts institutions had teaching development activities in place. Results suggest that teaching norms are closely associated with institutional type, but institutional type does not completely explain the differences in teaching norms. (Contains 30 references.) (Author/JB)

This research report describes a study of Marquesas Islanders and how they interact with each other at different life stages from childhood, through youth and adulthood. Fieldwork for this study was conducted for a 10-month period on the island of 'Ua Pou, Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia. A small community of about 200 people in a valley on the leeward side of the island served as the setting for this research. Both formal and informal observations of valley life provide the basis for the study of group interactions. These interactions are then linked to the range of Marquesan beliefs about how individuals should relate to the group. The observed differences across the lifespan that are described include: (1) patterns of social behavior; (2) rules underlying these patterns; and (3) concepts of how to relate to others underlying these patterns. Different life stages are characterized by different interaction patterns, rules, and concepts of human relations. (EH)

Papers from the conference on linguistic anomaly include: "La definition interactive de la deviance en situation exolingue et bilingue" ("The Interactive Definition of Deviation in Exolinguistic and Bilingual Situations") (Bernard Py); "La negociation ratee: pratiques sociales et methodes interactives du traitement de la deviance dans un 'talk show'" ("Negotiation Gone Awry: Social Practices and Interactive Methods of Treatment of Deviation in a Talk Show") (Cecilia Oesch-Serra); "Nommer l'autre: une etude des references a l'autre dans des conversations exolingues" ("Naming the Other: A Study of References to the Other in Exolinguistic Conversations") (Marion Perrefort); "Traitement des deviances au-dela du domaine morpho-syntactique dans l'enseignement des langues etrangeres" ("Treatment of Deviations in the Morphosyntactic Domain in the Teaching of Foreign Languages") (Gerard Merkt); "Langage deviant et orthophonie: l'exemple des dysphasies" ("Deviant Language and Pronunciation Instruction: The Example of Dysphasics"): Genevieve de Weck); "Faits deviants et tri des observables" ("Deviant Facts and the Sorting of Observables") (Marie-Jose Reichler-Beguelin): "La deviance de la suffixation en francais est-elle structurelle?" ("Is Suffix Deviation in French Structural?") (Amr Helmy Ibrahim); "Autour des relatives non standard" ("Concerning Non-Standard Relatives") (Joel Gapany, Denis Apotheloz); "Systemes experts et reseaux neuronaux: a propos de la deviance" ("Expert Systems and Neuron Networks: A Propos of Deviation") (Henri Madec); "Rabelais est-il un ecrivain deviant?" ("Is Rabelais a Deviant Writer?") (Andre Gendre); "Rabelais et la norme lexicale" ("Rabelais and the Lexical Norm") (Zygmunt Marzys); "L'intonation qui fait devier la conversation" ("Intonation That Derails Conversation") (Elisabeth Lhote); and "Le traitement des donnees linguistiques non standard. A propos du lexique commun franc-comtois/romand" ("The Treatment of Non-Standard Linguistic Data. A Propos of the Common Lexicon of Franche-Compte/Romansch") (Jean-Paul Colin). (MSE)

The notion of "textual norms" refers to sociocultural conventions that define the "well-formedness" of a text. Because well-formedness in texts is characterized by convention, different conventions may exist in a community and lead to norm conflicts when used in actual text generation. In this article, two types of norm conflict are described. In the first, there is a lack of a conventionalized norm system that leads to change in the norm system by a functionality principle (i.e., the normal system is viewed as a means not an end). In the second conflict, the goal and communicative function can be interpreted in different ways, and the norm system can be changed only according to a regulativity principle (i.e., an act of authority). (JP)

Papers presented at the 1990 Symposium of the Nordic Research Group for Theoretical and Applied Text Linguistics include the following: "Success Concepts" (Enkvist); "Reconciling the Psychological with the Linguistic in Accounts of Text Comprehension" (Garrod); "Particles as Fundaments of Discourse Structuring" (Fernandez-Vest); "Macrostructure in Conversation" (Backlund); "Lexis in Discourse" (Nyyssonen); "The Notion of Coercion in Courtroom Questioning" (Bulow-Moller); "Message Structure in LSP Texts: A Socially Determined Variation at Different Text Levels" (Gunnarsson); "Main Worlds and Supplements" (Melander); "Identity Relations and Superthemes in Swedish LSP Texts" (Naslund); "Conflicts and Changes in Textual Norms" (Berge); "Sign, Language, and Ritual: Contrastive Discourse Analysis of East German and Soviet TV News" (Pankow); "News Discourse: The Paratextual Structure of News Texts" (Frandsen); "Polyphonic Structure" (Flottum); "Articulation of Relational Propositions: A Tool for Identifying an Aspect of Text Comprehension" (Tirkkonen-Condit); "Temporal Adverbials in Text Structuring: On Temporal Text Strategy" (Virtanen); "Diversifying Procedural Discourse" (Wikberg); "A Sense of Relief: Backgrounding in Argumentative Student Writing" (Evensen); "Text and Reference" (Ventola); "Reference in Academic Rhetoric: A Contrastive Study of Finnish and English Writing" (Mauranen); "Some Aspects of the Pragmatic Organization of Academic Discourse" (Suomela-Salmi); "Composing on the Computer: A Study of Work Habits on the Job" (Wikborg); and "The Use of'Idea Processors' for Studying Structural Aspects of Text Production" (Eklundh). (JP)

The Assessment of Phonological Disabilities measure was administered to 39 normally developing children and 10 speech-delayed children who were Spanish speaking, of Puerto Rican descent, and ranging in age from 3 to 4. Data were analyzed by comparing phonological processes against the "standard referent" and the "Puerto Rican referent." The following syllabic and substitution processes were examined: final consonant deletion, velar fronting, stopping, palatal fronting, liquid simplification, assimilation, cluster reduction, and weak syllable deletion. Results with the normally developing children indicated that taking dialect into account alters the results with all syllabic processes. Results were altered most dramatically with final consonant deletion and liquid simplification. Results with the speech-delayed children indicated that taking dialect into consideration alters results with a majority of the phonological processes, most dramatically with final consonant deletion. The remediation process for two commonly occurring syllabic processes (initial consonant deletion and weak syllable deletion was then analyzed with six of the children. (JDD)

Experiences with the data, analysis, and results in the Finnish Contrastive Discourse Analysis Project (1985-1988) at the University of Oulu are reported. The purpose of the project was to describe the conversational skills of advanced Finnish speakers of English, and especially to determine the level of their social competence or their ability to use certain discourse strategies and/or politeness strategies. The most difficult aspect of the project was to determine the extent to which the differences in the language of advanced Finnish speakers of English were due to deficiencies in their linguistic skills and the degree to which they arose from different assumptions on the nature of conversational interaction in English and Finnish cultures. It was concluded that both framing and symbolizing strategies must be compared before definitive answers can be found regarding the level of social competence of the Finnish students. Some of the features of the interlanguage conversational style were found to result from cultural differences and culture-specific norms, but others were traced to deficiencies in the linguistic or structural skills of the students, particularly in the idiomatic control of the target language. Further research on the topic continues in the University of Oulu's Lexis in Discourse Project. Contains 9 references. (LB)

In successful schools, a significantly larger percentage of students graduate with knowledge, skills, and a positive attitude toward citizenship and work than students in other schools of comparable socioeconomic status. Using data from the "Tennessee Looks at Its Schools" project, which was based on fourth-grade Stanford Achievement Tests administered in May 1980 to six selected Tennessee elementary schools, this study addressed the norm-setting behavior of principals in effective schools. Behaviors collected from principals and teachers at the 6 schools were categorized into 13 ways that principals set norms. For analysis, any of the 13 categorized behaviors used by at least 4 of the principals were considered instrumental in norm-setting. A total of four norm-setting techniques occurred and were classified as "Human Relations,""Resource Provider,""Authority of Position," and "Modeling." Of these, Resource Provider may have the most potential for principals' effectiveness. Additionally, 35 norms identified in a review of effective school literature were compiled into a checklist; the principals and teachers of the six schools were asked to check the norms they perceived were occurring in their schools. The norm groupings indicated that principals fulfilled their obligations to teachers, respected teachers' professional autonomy, and helped define high expectations for students. (25 references) (KM)

Federal assistance for special educational programs makes necessary the regular study of evaluations of thousands of innovations in compensatory education, bilingual education, and reading programs. The results are reported to the President and to Congress. However, investigating organizations find only a few programs with adequate evidence and thousands with faulty evaluation designs. Some of the most common faults are discussed, with examples. There are other factors which lower hopes. If greater numbers with real evidence could be found, knowledge would increase even without an increase in the number of exemplary programs. (Author)

Several criteria for assessing bias in educational tests are presented and discussed. These criteria were developed in accordance with basic notions of fairness, equality, and expanded life options for women. In terms of prescriptions for test developers, the criteria are: (1) tests should be constructed of items which contain either no sex references or equal sex references; (2) status of males and females within the test should be equal; (3) item content should not reinforce traditional sex stereotypes. Tests currently in use may be considered biased if: (4) item content in terms of male or female statuses or stereotypes affects the performance of males or females differentially; (5) the test predicts differentially for males and females; (6) the test is normed separately for males and females unless separate norms are used to insure balance in selection; (7) the test is constructed so that female futures may be separated from male futures. (Author/RC)

Professional socialization in this paper refers to the process by which neophytes are initiated into the norms and values governing professional and academic disciplines in graduate school by professional gate-keepers. The first part of the paper shows very large differences in the effectiveness of professional socialization by sex, and across professional and academic disciplines. The second part explores some of the sources of ineffective socialization for neophytes and the gate-keepers who determine whether they gain access. The third part of the paper offers some techniques for helping both neophytes and gate-keepers discover more effective ways to achieve professional socialization. (Author/PC)

The development of local norms using the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities was part of a larger study, the purpose of which was to identify the percentage of Arizona school children having a handicap. The first step in this part of the project, which involved screening for communication disorders, was the selection of tests to identify language disorders. Step 2, the development of criteria for identifying the disorder, raised the question of when such a disorder should be considered pathological and when it should be considered an identifying feature of some dialect of English. The main question, however, was whether a test developed for one population is valid when administered to another. The Auditory Association and Grammatical Closure subtests of the ITPA were administered to a random selection of subjects representing the Arizona public school population. Subgroups differences appeared chiefly across ethnic boundaries. From this it is concluded that a test is valid for a specific group only if relevant norms have been developed for that group. The local norms and other statistics on the study are tabulated at the end of the report. (AM)

The Preschool Rating Scale (PRS) consists of twenty Guttman scaled items which assess a preschool child's personal-social development. Experience gained over the past two years indicate that it can be used: (1) for screening; (2) for program evaluation; (3) as a guide to the teachers in identifying specific areas of development which may need remediation; (4) to alert teachers to areas of development which they should be aware of; and (5) to assess day care worker's effectiveness. Norms are available for six groups from 36 to 71 months of age (N = 1,040 children). The norms were developed from urban and suburban advantaged and disadvantaged males and females. Based upon the ratings of 125 children by two groups of raters (pairs of raters rated 15-20 children each independently), the average of interrater correlation coefficient estimates was .74. The usual types of judgmental validity (constructor, user and face) have been obtained. More sophisticated statistical procedures have been used to indicate the predictive and inferential validity. The predictive validity was determined by a discriminant analysis. Inferential validity is indicated by noting that the mean score increases as older age groups are examined. These analyses indicate that the PRS can classify children as typical or non-typical with a high degree of accuracy. (Author)

Section one of this paper describes the history and development of the "communicaton audit," a system for assessing communication effectiveness in organizations, by the International Communication Association. Section two describes the 16 audits conducted so far and the overall demographic characteristics of the current survey data bank. Part three presents the current norms for the survey and major conclusions about organizational communication derived from these norms. Part four analyzes these norms by both organizational type and major demographic variables, providing evidence to test theories about organizational communication. Extensive tables are included. (AA)

Reflections on past and future uses of intelligence tests are presented. Three current approaches to intelligence tests are described: (1) neural efficiency, which relates the speed or quality of functioning of the neural system to test results; (2) information processing--cognitive micro-processes used in solving test items; and (3) psychoeducational, which relates classroom phenomena and test content. In projecting the future of intelligence testing, suggestions are made to discard the term IQ; to use commonly understood words; and to label specific skills by the content being tested, such as "addition", rather than "quantitative skills." Predictions on the future of intelligence tests involve the reporting of separate scores, each of which reflects a distinct ability; use of a different standard of measurement, rather than the IQ ratio; and a reporting system which will have greater educational value. Measuring the development of separate skills rather than an aggregate is recommended, as well as constructing tests related to classroom instruction that are designed to measure specific skills as they develop over the years. Comparable tests of the same abilities which measure children's competencies in the dominant language, as well as in the language of instruction, are also recommended. (MH)

This paper examines effects of pressure from the community and teachers' organization on interaction patterns or structures within schools, specifically on normative consensus, upward communication, and facilitative dependence. These structures help determine the extent of cooperation and support teachers receive. Questionnaire data from virtually all administrators and 253 teachers in a stratified random sample of 34 junior high and middle schools are used for a school-level correlation analysis. Community pressure generally disrupts the structures of cooperation, but at severe levels of intrusion into the school, the effect may be reversed as administrators and teachers close ranks against the community. Teacher organization pressure increases consensus among teachers but decreases it between faculty and principal and between principal and superintendent. Such pressure reduces the receptivity of the principal to teacher ideas (in their eyes, at least), although enhancing his actual knowledge of teacher concerns. Finally, teacher organization activity at the district level makes it harder for school personnel to help one another. These findings are interpreted in the light of changes in school-environmental relations, wherein community delegation of authority to professionals is giving way to community surveillance and influence in the schools. (Author)

An achievement testing framework is being developed by the Los Angeles Unified School District to assess the educational progress of 14,000 secondary level compensatory education students with something other than standardized tests. The technique of multiple matrix sampling was applied to the use of large item domains in the subject area of reading, mathematics, and language development. The domains of items were built locally on "content maps" which describe the skills actually taught in the compensatory education program. The process of constructing such frameworks is transportable to other programs. The possibility of obtaining normative data from the framework is being explored. (Author)

Ten algorithms for measuring school effectiveness were identified through literature analysis and interviews of the directors of 39 school improvement projects. The algorithms are described thus: (1) a major proportion of students achieve at or above average national levels; (2) an equal percentage of highest and lowest social classes achieve minimum basic skills mastery; (3) percentage of average and high achievers is rising while percentage of low achievers is dropping; (4) proportion of low income students at minimum mastery is rising; (5) achievement gap of low achievers with respect to grade level is decreasing; (6) gaps between racial or socioeconomic status are stable or decreasing; (7) performance equals or exceeds city-wide norms; (8) two or more independent groups perform above the 75th percentile; (9) school mean gain equals or exceeds the city-wide gain; and (10) average achievement exceeds predicted mean achievement. Each algorithm is classified according to the time frame of analysis, the level of data aggregation, the continuity of the population, and the reference norms used. Six of these algorithms are applied to data collected from a suburban elementary school 30 miles from Boston on tests of reading comprehension, mathematics, and readiness. The differing results of the different algorithms are described. (GDC)

This study examines the relationship between deviance and newsworthiness. A general explanation of deviance and definitions for five types of deviance--statistical, pathological, normative, labeling, and self-conception--are provided in the first sections of this paper. Next, the relationship between deviance and communication is explored, as are four approaches to communication: (1) content as function of media routines, (2) content as influenced by journalists' socialization and attitudes, (3) content as resulting from social and institutional forces, and (4) content as a function of ideological position. Major indicators of newsworthiness--such as novelty, conflict, sensationalism, and prominence--are also discussed, as well as other criteria, including timeliness, proximity, importance, and interest. A theoretical explanation for the relationship between deviance and newsworthiness is then provided. The summary points out that half of what is newsworthy can be interpreted as being deviant and that to the extent that deviant people and events bring about the opportunity for change, publicizing deviance is a prerequisite for controlling the direction and extent of social change. (DF)

A study compared two models (economic and journalistic) of news selection in an attempt to explain what becomes news. The news gathering and news decisionmaking processes of three western United States network-affiliated television stations, one each in a small, medium, and large market, were observed during 12 "typical" days. Questionnaires analyzing every story on the premier evening newscast were distributed on four of the days. Propositions relating to the cost of discovery, the cost of assembling stories, and audience appeal were tested for both models of news selection. Results indicated that the economic model based on maximizing station profit explained more news decisions at all three stations than the model based on journalistic norms. (Nineteen references and an appendix giving a breakdown of the data are attached.) (RS)

This paper discusses the problem of language standardization in education. The areas to which standardization may refer - phonology, spelling, punctuation, grammar and lexicon - are discussed, and problems associated with efforts to standardize them in schools are pointed out. The position taken is that a decision to promote language standards should weigh the advantages against the disadvantages, i.e., clarity in communication against time and effort needed to implement and teach standard usage. The complex nature of the process of language standardization is described by analyzing six interrelated components: isolation of a norm, assignment of value, establishing a purpose for the norm, acceptance, comparison and time span. Finally, the following criteria are suggested for standardizing or maintaining a standard within the educational domain: the number of styles it is useful to isolate, and whether schools want language standardization. (AM)

Conference speakers reviewed and analyzed the current thinking underlying the basic concepts of test norms, reliability, and validity. Roger T. Lennon's paper called for more attention to the development of norming theory and summarized current norming practices and the establishment of a system which would permit comparable norms for tests which were standardized on different samples. Robert L. Thorndike commented on proposals, practices, and procedures for estimating reliability. Anne Anastasi reviewed recent approaches to the study of validity. During the session devoted to test use in medicine, John P. Hubbard described a method used to test the diagnostic competence of interns. E. Lowell Kelly reported on an extensive investigation of predictor and criterion variables of concern to medical schools. Jerome S. Bruner presented the luncheon address on human development. Warren G. Findley discussed current theory and applications in the appraisal of cognitive ability. Non-cognitive aspects of student performance were treated by Samuel Messick, who considered the portential contribution of personality assessment techniques to the prediction of college success. The final speaker was Robert L. Ebel, who spoke on the social consequences of educational testing. (BH)

The organizational characteristics of public schools, the impact of context on people in schools, and the consequences for school reform are examined. Based on the thesis that organizational characteristics of schools constrain most reform efforts, a suggestion is made for restructuring the teaching day, which promotes effective planning and provides a varied learning experience for students. A recommendation is made for consideration of school organizational context to understand the microsociological and micropolitical ramifications of reform. (LMI)

A large scale study of local norms that are directly related to the interests of military education counselors is described. In a cooperative effort, the U.S. Armed Forces Institute and the Test Department of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. normed the Adult Basic Learning Examination (ABLE) and validated its utility in predicting success on the General Educational Development (GED) tests using selected samples of the military population. The data provided are directly relevant to decisions regarding competency in basic skills and those involving the prediction of success on the GED tests. In addition, the data permit counselors to develop performance frames of reference for specific groups within the military population. Military educational counselors can now not only make judgments based on valid information but can initiate programs of action with confidence since the prescribed intervention is rooted in reliable assessment. (Author/RC)

This paper from the 1976 Southeastern Conference on Human Development is an overview of the attitudes that have influenced the research and writings on childrearing form 1920 to 1950. The content of articles in popular periodicals on infants and child care for mothers is reviewed in relation to the themes and scientific movements of the period. Concern about good moral training, a dominant theme around 1900, had disappeared by the 1920s, and was replaced by an emphasis on proper health conditions and strict discipline. The writings of Emmett Holt and John B. Watson advocating strict regimes of behavioral control dominated childrearing philosophy at a time when society looked to science as a social as well as technological instrument. By the 1940s a third major stage in maternal models emerged into prominence. This model was characterized by a preoccupation with personality development, with a particular emphasis on the importance of emotional security provided by parental "tender loving care." This return to more natural influences reflected a basic conception of child development which considered the child to possess positive growth forces. The New Deal and the upheaval of family life during World War II fostered a compassionate, responsible societal attitude towards its children. The nature-nurture controversy was of interest to child development specialists throughout the period discussed. (Author/SB)

Differences in the normative data presented in the Koppitz Scoring System for the Bender Gestalt Test (a measure for diagnosing learning and neurological disorders) were compared for 838 elementary age children of the Sioux, Chippewa, Navajo, and Apache tribes and a Koppitz normative group. Considered were mean error differences and mean time differences, sex differences, and reservation/non-reservation differences. Results indicated statistically significant differences between American Indian samples and the non-Indian group at a number of age levels on mean errors. Significant differences were found at some ages between tribes on mean errors and mean time. Sources of differences, the need for developing specific normative data for groups with marked cultural and learning pattern differences, and appropriate interpretation of these data were discussed. (Author/SBH)

Development of The Assessment of Basic Competencies (ABC), a test battery based on the three-parameter logistic model, is described. Eleven dimensions of intellectual growth are measured, from the pre-kindergarten level through ninth grade. An educationally relevant skill domain is represented by each test. Unique properties of the test, based on item characteristic curve theory, are reviewed and two procedures utilized in developing the battery are described. The methods used to place each test's items on a common metric and to generate scoring tables for each test are described. Overlapping subtests or overlapping groups of testees are not required, and hand-calculated test scores can be converted into a maximum likelihood point estimate and a distribution-free interval estimate of the testee's ability. (Author/MH)

Three different computational procedures for equating two forms of a test were applied to a pair of mathematics tests to compare the results of the three procedures. The tests that were being equated were two forms of the SRA Mastery Mathematics Tests. The common, linking test used for equating was the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Form S, Mathematics Test. The equating sample was a group of 2,039 sixth grade students in the South Carolina Statewide Testing Program. The first equating method, developed by Angoff, involved estimating the mean and variance for each SRA test for the total group, that is, combining the groups that had taken each test, and then computing a conversion equation from one score scale to the other. The second method, also developed by Angoff, involved equating each of the two SRA forms to the equating test. The third method involved finding a prediction equation for each SRA test from the common test and then combining the two prediction equations to form the equating equation. (CTM)

The English language portions of appropriate levels of the Language Assessment Scales (LAS) were administered to 193 English-speaking monolingual elementary school students. The students were aged 5-14, and had average reading achievement scores on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. On the basis of the publisher's norms, maturational trends in scores were found. A high percentage of the English-speaking sample, especially the 5- to 7-year-olds, were inappropriately classified as being non-English speaking or as having limited English fluency. Thus, the test's ability to classify correctly levels of English fluency was questioned. Because of the definite developmental trend observed, it was also recommended that separate norms be established for the different age groups (5-10 years) who are administered the LAS-1. (GDC)

The strengths and weakness of standardized tests, and trends in achievement testing in the last 15 years are examined. The discussion of achievement tests includes survey, instructional, diagnostic, and basic skills tests, as well as tests used for formative and summative evaluation. Minimum competency tests are not examined in detail. Advantages of the tests are summarized: accuracy, objectivity, comparability, convenience, and efficiency. Multilevel achievement test series recognized as providing comprehensive and continuous measurement from kindergarten through high school. Critics are concerned with procedures for administering, interpreting, and using tests; the emphasis on measurement of cognitive skills; the emphasis on recall--rather than analysis, synthesis, and other higher order skills; the reliance on multiple-choice and/or poorly constructed test items; the failure to measure what is being taught; and test bias. It is asserted that criticism has contributed to the improvement of achievement tests. In test development, attention is being paid to: eliminating bias from test items; providing self-scoring or latent image printing tests for more immediate feedback; involving teachers and educational personnel in writing objectives and test items; developing item banks; providing more interpretive and prescriptive information; developing multilevel, scaled score systems; using latent trait models; and providing expectancy tables. The impact of the impetus for truth in testing is still unknown. (MH)

The structure and foundations of educational evaluation activities are explained. Evaluation theories are divided into descriptive or empirical, and normative. Descriptive theory is defined as explaining phenomena, rather than being based on normative premises. It is referred to as educational evaluation analysis and is classified as a social science activity which studies a particular set of occurrences. Normative theories are based on defining the applicability of certain educational activities and the methods by which these activities should be conducted. They are used to make value judgments of programs or activities, and to prescribe the criteria which govern an evaluator's responsibilities. Five kinds of normative theories are discussed: (1) empirical hypothesis testing; (2) use of the principles of measurement and research methodology; (3) organization of the principles to approach the evaluation problem; (4) provision of useful information to decision makers; and (5) rational and ethical evaluation. It is concluded that educatioal evaluation is a practical activity which should be grounded in empirical tests and rational and ethical principles. (MH)

An equating study was conducted on the Certifying Examination for Primary Care Physician's Assistants to compare the ability of current examinees with the standardization group and to determine if current test items are more difficult than previous items. Using 46 common items from the multiple choice section, the 1978 exam was equated to the 1976 version by four methods: Rasch, linear raw, linear short-cut, and traditional item statistics. Raw scores for the current examination, scored traditionally and equated to the 1976 test by the four methods, reflect the fact that current examinees performed better on the 46 common items than the reference examinees. Only the Rasch model however, was able to confirm that items on the current test were more difficult. This model can be used to determine whether or not examination standards should be raised as training programs improve. (CP)

The validity of the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills (CTBS) and problems associated with inappropriate norms were investigated in eleven senior high schools in Phoenix, Arizona. CTBS validity was assessed in three ways: (1) correlation between test scores and number of courses taken in that subject; (2) correlation between CTBS scores and locally-developed criterion referenced tests; and (3) relationship between course difficulty and CTBS scores. A reverse norming procedure was used to obtain a constant normed comparison group--a group which did not increase inability in successive grades. This resulted in the analysis of data from 631 ninth and tenth graders in two Title I schools. Results of the validity studies indicated that correlations between CTBS scores and courses taken were high for science and mathematics courses, lower for English courses, and negative for reading courses. CTBS correlations with locally developed tests ranged from .38 to .83. Students in more difficult science and mathematics courses had higher test performance. Regarding the use of reverse norming, no clear pattern of differences emerged between restricted and nonrestricted norms. (GDC)

The Washington state Title I Migrant Program Evaluation project is a feasibility study designed to assess the suitability of existing normed criterion referenced tests to measuring mathematics achievement at grades four, five, and six. Objectives include judging the technical qualities and content of several normed criterion referenced tests; evaluating selected tests by administering them to a sample of migrant students; and developing specifications for an acceptable test if those available are inappropriate. The conceptual framework requires a means of establishing content domain; location of normed criterion referenced tests; guidelines for test evaluation; and appropriate sources of information to use in applying the guidelines. A subset of the Math Skills List (MSL) from the Migrant Student Record Transfer System (MSRTS) has been adopted, and some published norm referenced tests have been considered as evaluation instruments. Guidelines for test evaluation have been adopted from an existing model and cover ten categories: objectives, test items, administration, layout, reliability, cutting scores, validity, norms, test score reporting, and interpretation. Sources of information to aid in applying the guidelines include test manuals and technical papers, test item judges, field tests, and local conditions. (Activities to carry out the study are described.) (MH)

The author raises some philosophical and practical objections to establishing cataloging productivity quotas. They are unlikely to have any significant impact when used as planning and evaluation tools by management. Quotas would be counterproductive in a profession that does not lend itself to quantification and places an emphasis on quality of output. (JPF)

The conference is divided into three sections: (1) constructing examinations so that they will be valid measures of important functions; (2) defining the nature of the verbal factor as used in aptitude test batteries; and (3) establishing the type of norms most useful and important for the interpretation of achievement test scores. Papers are entitled: Item Selection to Maximize Test Validity; Criticisms of Commonly Used Methods of Validating Achievement Test Items; The Validity of Novel Types of Achievement Test Exercises in Relation to Instruction; Transferring Field Situations to Test Exercises at the Air University; Planning a Test by Reverse English; The Criterion; Why a Verbal Factor?; Vocabulary as an Arbitrary Definer of the Verbal Relations Factor; Delimiting the Verbal Factor; Verbal Factors; The Relationship Between Verbal Factor Scores and Other Variables; The Verbal Factor from the Consumer Point of View; The Value of Norms Based on a New Type of Scale Unit; Norms and the Individual Pupil; Norms and the Individual Community; Norms for Scholastic Aptitude and Achievement Tests of Independent Secondary School Pupils; Norms of Achievement by Schools; and Some Basic Problems Concerning Achievement Test Norms at the Elementary and Intermediate Grades. (MH)

In times when the issue of state and individual security is on everyone's lips, the need for a security culture adapted to the challenges of the security environment is increasingly felt. If going through a pandemic that left behind a world devastated primarily on a psychological and emotional level, but also physically, made us rethink our value scale and prioritize strengthening our immune system, similarly, the conflicts taking place near our borders, as well as those occurring at considerable distances which have equally disastrous consequences for a society already vulnerable and seemingly having lost all control over its direction, lead to the need to place special importance on consolidating and raising the level of security culture, especially regarding responsible institutions, but also citizens whose lives are directly affected by the lack of essential knowledge for a resilient lifestyle in the field of security. The paper aims to identify the problems that have prevented us from evolving in the field of security culture and to draw attention to the fact that avoiding taking absolutely necessary measures and the lack of constant and coherent concerns can lead to situations that could be catastrophic for our nation and which could be avoided through sustained effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marginalization and stigma can shape the information practices of vulnerable groups. Using examples from previous research, this short paper examines how norms and marginalization can serve as information barriers in societal and medical settings for transgender and non‐binary people. The results indicate the presence of several information barriers that are related to marginalization and gender norms in both social and medical settings. Marginalization can result in covert information seeking, and gender norms can affect embodied information practices, such as information sharing. Medical authorities hold authority that can impose barriers on information sharing and lead to gender norms being adhered to in medical settings. The results highlight various practical implications for information and healthcare providers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As cyber crime becomes ever more sophisticated and a significant asymmetric threat, the need for effective cyber security is of vital importance. One important cyber security response is through cyber norms. At the same time, calls for multi-sector and multi-domain trust and cooperation are widespread. Yet research on the nature of trust and cooperation in cyber security norms appears to be underdeveloped. Key questions remain concerning the emergence and nature of trust and cooperation in norms. In addressing this gap, the article first considers how we can understand trust and cooperation in cyber norms through leveraging well-established theory from management research on trust building. Next, the paper examines the SolarWinds breach, as an example, to evaluate norms, trust and cooperation. The paper then applies principles from prominent trust-building theory to examine the antecedents, processes of outputs involved in building trust and cooperation. The contribution of this work presents a foundational conceptual framework, to allow the dynamics of norms, trust, and cooperation in managing cyber crime incidents to be studied. In doing so, the literature on examining trust and cooperation in norms is extended. Other researchers' interest is encouraged as is an agenda for further research on norms, trust, and cooperation to support cyber security management. Implications may help the cyber security community as they construct and manage norms, trust, and cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As robots become more prevalent in society, they will need to learn to act appropriately under diverse human teaching styles. We present a human-centered approach for teaching robots reward functions by using a mixture of teaching strategies when communicating action appropriateness and goal success. Our method incorporates two teaching strategies for learning: explicit action instruction and evaluative, scalar-based feedback. We demonstrate that a robot instantiating our method can learn from humans who use both kinds of strategies to train the robot in a complex navigation task that includes norm-like constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The most striking expression of the social fact is the social norm. Man's social existence cannot be conceived without norms, mainly moral, religious and legal, that regulate and even determine the behavior of the human person in the social environment. The existence of any individual as a social being presupposes a series of obligations exercised throughout his life cycle, materialized in a series of norms, some of which complement each other, others appear contradictory to others, being specific to different interest groups. This system of rules is a condition for the existence of society's life, a mechanism that requires good management of human relations and removes the imminent danger of chaos. Social norms are imposed, promoted and perpetuated by several methods that we will analyze in our study Regardless of the field they regulate, social norms contain rules addressed to individuals, describing and detailing the ways in which values must be translated into legitimate behaviors and accepted by society. As social relations are extremely varied, a diversity of social norms that regulate these relations is also outlined. Thus, the system of social norms consists of the following groups: ethical norms, ordinary norms (customs), corporate norms, religious norms and legal norms. There are also technical norms that are not part of social determinism because they do not regulate social relations. Regarding the complex relationship between the normative legal system and, on the other hand, society, it can be seen that currently the legal system tends to have its own functional autonomy, apart from the objective or subjective determinations that society transmits. The autonomy of the judiciary tries to transform itself from a secondary, phenomenological and ideational structure, into one with its own reality, with the power to impose its order on the social and natural order. In this study we also analyze aspects of the work of normative codification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

RESEARCH QUESTION The global COVID-19 pandemic disrupted daily routines and rituals that normally sustain important shared meanings, identities, and relationships. This impacted market interactions through temporary and permanent service disruptions, masks and other protective equipment in customer service encounters, and social distancing protocols in retail, service and healthcare. In the face of such widespread disruption, how do consumers negotiate adoption of new behaviors or re-establish old norms and routines? Much of consumer behavior remains disconnected from conscious awareness or articulated values (Shove 2010), guided instead by unconscious social, cultural, or physiological influences (Allen 2002; Bargh 2002; Williams and Poehlman 2017). Over a lifetime practice and observations of others' actions in context, people develop a "toolkit" of cultural resources (Swidler 2001, p. 104), which includes meanings, materials, and competences (Shove, Pantzar, and Watson 2012). Norms incorporate symbolic or emotional knowledge (meanings) and practical knowledge (competences) about how to do things in specific social contexts, shaping how people integrate meanings, materials, and competences into socially intelligible practices. During the COVID-19 pandemic, protective face masks became widespread but also highly contested and resisted in consumers' everyday lives. This creates public health threats that require continued marketing and public policy responses, but it also creates an opportunity to test sociological and psychological theorization about how cultural toolkits shape consumer responses to normative disruptions. To address this opportunity, we use a multi-method and cross-cultural analysis of mask wearing during COVID-19 to analyze how consumers navigate competition between old and new norms and accept and routinize new norms. METHOD AND DATA Our research utilizes qualitative and quantitative data that illuminate consumer behavior and experiences with masks at various stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our data include ethnographic participant observation in a range of market places (USA: 160+ hours from 9/20-10/20; China: 100+ hours between 9/20-12/20). Fieldnotes produced by researchers and student assistants document these observations in over 550 pages of fieldnotes (~200 pages [US]; ~350 [China]). Qualitative data also include in-depth Zoom interviews with 41 American consumers (12/20-7/21) and 36 Chinese consumers (10/20-9/21) about their customer experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Two US-based online surveys (MTurk, 10/2/20, n=388; Prolific, 3/31/20, n=500) and two China-based online surveys (Tencent WenJuan, 11/30/20, N=305; 7/14/21, N=516) included open-ended responses and quantitative scale measures. Qualitative data were analyzed using nVivo qualitative data analysis software. We began with open coding, revising our code list and narrowing our focus by comparing between theory, emerging themes, and additional data (Burawoy 1998; Emerson, Fretz, and Shaw 2011; Katz 2001, 2002). This paper draws on interpretive analysis of our qualitative data and descriptive statistical analysis of our survey data. Our qualitative data and analysis enable interpretive theory building, while our quantitative data compare the relative prevalence of emergent themes among a broader sample. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS We find that the addition of protective masks into previously settled and routinized market practices, such as retail shopping or restaurant dining, disrupts consumer lives in small and large ways. The extent of this disruption and the duration of its persistence is shaped primarily by the relationship between particular social contexts and the cultural toolkits consumers draw on. Consumers use accessible cultural meanings and existing competences to make sense of and respond to mask wearing as a new behavioral norm. When meanings and competences align intuitively with mask wearing, wearing masks feels intuitively right, and consumers follow existing competences like rule following, behavioral matching, and personal safety to routinize the new behavior into their social situations. However, other consumers experience mask wearing norms as conflicting with elements drawn from their cultural toolkits. This experience creates a persistent sense that implicit and explicit values giving meaning to their lives and helping them make sense of the world are being violated. When normative contexts explicitly conflict with toolkit meanings and competences, consumers feel forced to actively fight against prevailing norms--whether in favor or against mask wearing--to motivate their actions. Finally, we find that a large proportion of consumers in both countries wear masks contextually following predominant norms or mandates, while at the same time resisting the normalization of the behavior and its implied social values by using established competences to maintain old norms wherever possible. This continued negotiation of familiar and unfamiliar norms results in many contexts across the US and China where mask wearing remains unsettled. In such contexts, our analysis shows that mask wearing behavior is connected interdependently with established cultural toolkits that include practical meanings, competences, and materials. Addressing one of these factors without the others typically yields unstable or ineffective results when promoting behavior change. KEY CONTRIBUTIONS Our research demonstrates the importance of using a sociocultural lens to analyze marketing and public policy responses to normative changes during COVID-19 and future disruptions. The meanings and competences that comprise social norms represent social and cultural tools carried by individuals and reproduced through their everyday interactions (Shove, Pantzar, and Watson 2012; Swidler 2001). Market and policy interventions to shape new prosocial norms must address behaviors and their possible meaning and competence alignments contextually rather than individually. Market spaces such as retail stores and other businesses represent key sites that shape the creation and maintenance of mask wearing and other norms. Marketers and policy makers must also remember that pervasive normative changes that disrupt familiar routines are particularly susceptible to kindling ideological conflicts. Masks, which have the potential to impact almost every social practice outside of consumers' homes, naturally attract such conflict. Policy makers and marketers should engage early with complementary meanings and competences (DeMora et al. 2021; Kidwell, Farmer, and Hardesty 2013) to avoid implicit attacks on cultural values. They can also support familiar norms, which can maintain a sense of control to counter the disruption of other routines (McGregor et al. 1998; Nail et al. 2009). An understanding of how values and norms shape behavior during unsettled times can help researchers, marketers, and policy makers better understand and respond to the temporary yet indefinite disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]