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The purpose of this study was to investigate the specific factors teachers consider when assigning the grades they record on students' report cards. Data were gathered from 943 K-12 teachers from five school districts in a Southeastern state who completed the "Teachers' Grading Practices Survey." Analyses focused on how teachers weigh different factors in determining grades, if these factors and weights differ among teachers who teach at different grade levels, and if they vary among teachers with different years of classroom experience. Results revealed statistically significant differences related to teachers' grade level but no differences associated with teachers' years of experience. Identified differences were evident in teachers' consideration of both cognitive and non-cognitive factors of students' performance. Implications are discussed for improving grading policies and practices, teacher education, and teacher professional development.

The Kentucky Education Reform Act (KERA) represents one of the most comprehensive pieces of educational reform legislation enacted in the United States. This article describes a series of unintended consequences that are the direct results of inconsistencies both between and within components of the reform. The inconsistencies have made certain reform components highly controversial and have confounded implementation efforts. They also point out areas where policymakers must give serious attention if modern reform initiatives are to create the improvements for which they are intended. Data were gathered from four sources: a comprehensive review of research reports; analysis of state newspaper articles; telephone interviews with leaders of selected legislative subcommittees, Department of Education officials, and leaders of various educational groups; and informal meetings with various groups of educators. (Contains 26 references.) (LMI)

This study investigated the effect of the development of mastery learning on the curriculum of preservice teacher education programs and the content of inservice professional development programs. Nine educational psychology textbooks, published since 1990, and three other texts used as supplementary textbooks were analyzed. The study found that 10 of the 12 textbooks included descriptions of mastery learning, with the median number of pages allocated to the subject being 2.5 in textbooks that averaged between 600 and 700 pages in length. Benjamin S. Bloom's 1968 "Learning for Mastery" article, in which the basis of mastery learning was set forth, was cited in only 5 of the 12 texts. The texts' references to research reviews, books, and individual studies are analyzed. The study concludes that most of the textbooks' descriptions were limited and imprecise, with many being conspicuously inaccurate. As a result of the cursory treatment of mastery learning in most preservice education programs, implementation efforts have depended primarily on inservice professional development activities. Mastery learning is generally well received by inservice education participants because it helps them improve their results with students by making more effective use of skills they already have, rather than drastically altering what they are doing. (Contains 85 references.) (JDD)

Guidelines for and obstacles to focusing on student learning outcomes as the primary educational goal are presented in this paper. Five obstacles that impede the focus on student outcomes are the beliefs that: learning should be normally distributed; education's purpose is to select talent; the purpose of testing is for evaluation only; curriculum and instruction are ends in themselves; and specifying outcomes diminishes the creative process. Guidelines for improving student learning include: (1) think big, start small; (2) utilize teamwork; and (3) focus on success. (9 references) (LMI)

Critical issues concerning the state takeover of local school districts are outlined in this paper. Three major topics are addressed: situational factors leading to intervention; the legitimacy of state power; and appropriate beneficial conditions of state takeover. The most frequent reasons for state intervention involve concerns about equity, accountability, and different effectiveness levels of schools with similar resources and populations. A discussion of the issue of state legitimacy concludes that the state has the legitimate power to intervene. However, the extent to which responsibility is part of such power is less clearly defined. Recommendations specify that future state takeovers must provide usable expertise and resources to the local schools involved, utilize multidimensional evaluations of school effectiveness, and clearly define state and local functions. Finally, because the primary reason for intervention is the protection of children's rights, cooperation is crucial. (20 references) (LMI)

The Responsibility for Student Achievement Questionnaire (RSA) was designed to measure elementary or secondary school teachers' beliefs regarding their responsibility for their students' academic successes and failures. The 30 items were constructed in the alternative-weighting format; for each item describing student success or failure, the respondent assigns one number indicating the degree to which that event is caused by the teacher, and a second number indicating the degree to which the event is caused by factors outside the teacher's control. (Both numbers must total 100). The RSA was administered to 215 elementary and secondary school teachers who also indicated the grade level taught, number of years of teaching experience, and sex. Results showed that females assumed greater responsibility for the positive achievements of their students than males did. Differences related to years of experience or grade level taught were not significant. Test reliability was moderately high, and subscale scores assessing responsibility for success and for failure were distinct. (The similarity between teachers' RSA scores and students' Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire scores is discussed, and the RSA questionnaire is included). (Author/GDC)

The influence of change in teachers' instructional effectiveness upon the relationship between their expectations for students' performance and student achievement outcomes is investigated. Data were gathered from 44 intermediate and high school level teachers who particpated in an inservice training workshop on mastery learning strategies. Correlations between teachers' initial expectations for students' achievement and students' final examination scores, final grades, and teachers' follow-up expectations for students, were all significantly lower in mastery classes of those teachers who experienced some positive change in their instructional effectiveness. The degree of change in instructional effectiveness was determined by comparing each teacher's mastery and control classes in terms of the following two outcome measures: (1) percent of students in each class receiving an A or B as course grade; and (2) average percent correct on a common course examination. Implications regarding related teacher perceptions and classroom behaviors are discussed. (Author/RL)

Past research on teachers' causal attributions has shown little relation between perceptions of responsibility for positive versus negative student learning outcomes. In this study, Weiner's model for causal attributions was employed to explore these perceived attributional differences. Data were gathered from 184 teachers from two metropolitan school districts. Of the 184 teachers, 60 taught grades 1-8, 124 taught grades 9-12; 69 were male, all of whom taught at the secondary level. Teachers were asked to complete a questionnaire which asked them to divide 100 percent among four probable causes for a classroom situation in which they were either particularly successful or unsuccessful with a group of students. Causes related to their teaching abilities, effort put into teaching, difficulty of the task and luck. Statistically significant differences between attributions for positive versus negative outcomes were identified along the dimensions of both internality/externality and stability of cause. Relations to overall efficacy, teaching experience, grade level taught, and teacher gender were also explored. However, only grade level differences were found to be statistically significant. Elementary teachers tended to attribute their lack of success to lack of effort more than did secondary teachers. (Author/RL)

A study of community college students' use of educational support systems was conducted at the City Colleges of Chicago. The study sought to determine: (1) the level of usage of formal support systems (e.g., teachers, class participation, counselors, tutors, libraries, and other learning resources); (2) the level of usage of informal support systems (e.g., friends, classmates, and study groups); (3) the correlation among the use of various support systems; and (4) the relationship between the use of support systems and students' attitudes toward peer assistance, educational expectations, high school grade point average (GPA), and course grade. Students were asked to indicate whether they never, sometimes, often, or always engaged in eight formal support activities and seven informal support activities. Responses from 120 students revealed that, among formal support systems, raising hands in class to ask questions was the most frequently engaged in activity, while consulting tutors received the lowest use rating. Among informal supports, helping other students received the highest frequency rating, while study groups were the least frequently used support system. Students who used these support systems tended to have higher educational expectations, friends with higher expectations, higher high school GPA's, and higher course grades than students who did not use these supports. Data tables corresponding to questionnaire items are included. (KL)

An exploratory study was conducted to identify the characteristics and behaviors related to effective instruction in an urban community college. The 30 instructors selected for the study taught introductory courses in biology, English, mathematics, or social sciences at the City Colleges of Chicago. All had exceptionally high levels of student achievement and low levels of student attrition in these classes and had been identified as exemplary instructors by their academic dean. Structured interviews were conducted with 28 instructors who provided information on personal background; course planning and organization; positive regard for students; use of teaching strategies to foster student participation; and degree and type of feedback, correction, and reinforcement given to students. The study revealed that these exemplary teachers shared many common teaching characteristics and instructional practices, regardless of their academic discipline, age, or experience. Effective teachers were generally well organized and very systematic in their teaching. Although they used primarily whole-group instruction, the teachers emphasized student participation in class. These teachers provided regular and specific feedback on student learning progress and had a high positive regard for their students, which they communicated by learning students' names and encouraging individual conferences. The study report details methodology, limitations, and findings and includes the survey instrument. (KL)

Many contemporary inservice programs set out initially to change teachers' attitudes or gain some sense of commitment from teachers prior to the implementation of a new program. However, some research studies suggest that such efforts, in and of themselves, are unlikely to bring about any real change. Serious commitment is likely to occur only after teachers have had an opportunity to use the new program or innovation and have seen that it really assists them in teaching their students. Since serious teacher commitments rarely occur prior to the implementation of a new program, it is critically important to find alternative ways of encouraging teachers to engage in the new practice. Training by a person judged by the teachers to be credible is essential, and teachers must be provided with information that is useful and applicable to their daily experiences in the classroom, not theoretical overviews. In a study of Direct Instruction (a highly structured, basic skills approach) teachers' attitudes began to change when they saw positive evidence that this method improved the academic achievement of their students. In Mastery Learning programs, teachers' attitudes changed when they saw improvement in students' performances on weekly tests, and greater student involvement during class sessions. These changes did not occur quickly but evolved over a period of time. (JD)

A study was conducted to examine the effects of four independent variables, i.e., college, department, teacher, and course, on course completion rates at the City Colleges of Chicago. Three colleges were chosen as representative of the eight City Colleges, and the English, Business, and Mathematics Departments were chosen from the departments with the largest enrollments. From within each of the three departments at the three campuses, ten teachers, each teaching one introductory course and one higher-level course in spring 1981, were randomly selected. Statistical analyses revealed significant variations in completion rates between teachers and between colleges, with these two factors accounting for about two-thirds of the total variation. There was also significant variation between departments across colleges and considerably greater variation between colleges than between departments within a college. The study revealed an insignificant level of variation between upper and lower-level courses. Since teacher effect accounts for the largest amount of variation in earned credit rates, staff development should be considered as a method for improving student achievement and retention rates. Differences between colleges may be due to policy, administrative expectations, or procedures, and an examination of these factors may be appropriate. (HB)

This paper presents a model describing three context variables hypothesized to affect measures of teacher efficacy. These variables include the nature of the student performance outcome (positive or negative), the ability of the students involved (high or low), and the scope of influence (single student or group of students). The results from studies investigating the influence of performance outcomes and student ability on teachers' perceptions of efficacy are summarized. The present study explored the extent of the effect of influence on the teachers' perceptions. It was discovered that teachers do distinguish in their perceptions of efficacy between results with a single student and those with a group of students. When poor performance was involved, teachers expressed less personal responsibility and efficacy for single students than for results from a group of students. A four-page list of references is included. (Author/CB)

This paper describes the elements that most clearly identify and are most critical to a mastery learning program. Ways in which teachers can easily and efficiently implement these elements in their teaching and practices are outlined, along with procedures for evaluating their effectiveness in improving student learning. A discussion is presented on the elements most basic and crucial to the mastery learning process. These elements consist of feedback, correctives and enrichment activities, coupled with congruence with specific learning criteria and the procedures used to evaluate learning. Implications for the implementation of mastery learning are discussed: (1) mastery learning can be very broadly applied; (2) teachers need not dramatically change what they are doing in their classrooms or the way they teach to use mastery learning; (3) mastery learning has a positive effect on most student achievement; and (4) more students can experience learning success. A brief list of references is included. (JD)

This paper describes the basic elements of Mastery Learning, as outlined by Benjamin S. Bloom, and Mastery Teaching, as outlined by Madeline C. Hunter. It shows that while these two instructional approaches are clearly distinct, they can actually serve as complements to one another. In addition, each can bring added strength to the other such that when used in combination, results are likely to be better than either can achieve alone. Implications for staff development and instructional improvement programs in general are also discussed. (Author)

A synthesis of findings from 38 studies on group-based applications of mastery learning strategies are presented. Meta-analytic procedures were used to combine the results of the studies and to calculate overall estimates of the effects of group-based applications. Results show that such applications yield consistently positive effects on both cognitive and affective student learning outcomes, and several teacher variables. However, variation in the size of the effect across studies is quite large. Effect size was found to vary as a function of the grade level of students, the subject area to which mastery learning is applied, and the duration of the study. Possible explanations for this variation are discussed, along with implications for future directions in the research. Tables, figures, and a 10-page reference list are appended. (Author/PN)

This paper describes an exploratory study designed to investigate the relation between selected teacher perceptions past research has shown to be shared by highly effective teachers, and teacher attitudes toward the implementation of new instructional practices. Data were gathered through a questionnaire administered to 120 elementary and secondary school teachers immediately following a half-day staff development program on mastery learning instructional strategies. Results showed that measures of teacher efficacy, teaching affect, and teaching self-concept were significantly related to teachers' attitudes regarding the congruence, difficulty of use, and importance of the recommended practices. Implications for instructional improvement efforts are discussed. (Author)