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Purpose: The purpose of this systematic literature review is to display an overview of the progresses and advancements made in the field of neuroeconomics by describing the concept, the field of research, and the tools and measures that are applied. By doing so, the authors show how the acknowledgeable interdisciplinary field influenced the study of applied economics (neuroeconomics and the decision-making process) in recent years. Methodology: A systematic literature review was performed where the authors present the evolution of the field and present the current state of the art of this interdisciplinary field to understand the phenomenon of decision-making, more specifically, applied to (neuro)economic processes, mind/emotional triggers, and chemical/emotional outcomes. This analysis was conducted with the database B-ON. 55 articles remained purposeful for the present research after the authors checked for relevance. Results: Neuroeconomics, as a subfield of economics (general field of research) and applied neuroscience, analyses the human brain, from the stance of decision-makers, their thought processes (rational and emotional), and behavior (Alós-Ferrer, 2018). The focus of the area is to study and develop a comprehensive understanding of how and to what extent a decision affects the brain and future decision choices in terms of nature and perception of risk (Baechler & Germain, 2018; Karmarkar & Plassmann, 2019; Landry & Webb, 2021). Originality: Neuroscience contributes to the understanding of the human mind with the use of specific tools/measures. More, this field has evolved to be applied to other areas of research that contribute to a successful and worthwhile discussion. In this sense, neuroeconomics is a rapidly evolving interdisciplinary field that applies neurosciencebased tools/techniques to the research field of economics. However, there is a lack of guidance and introductory research. Since there isn’t any requirement to contribute to this field, newcomers should receive additional support to produce high-quality work that encourages the development of the field. This systematic literature review aims to answer that gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trying to prove the validity of Eysenck’s theories for the biological basis of personality many data for the differences between extraverts and introverts were collected. It was obtained, that the ERP differences between extraverts and introverts depend on the intensity and frequency of stimulation, but the papers concerning task difficulty dependence are very limited. The purpose of this work was to investigate how the task complexity affects ERP differences between extraverts and introverts. For testing the extraversion we used Eysenck Personality Questionary (EPQ). We recorded EEG under four equal audio series of pseudo-randomized low and high tones. We changed the level of task complexity by different instructions: 1 - passive listening; 2 – answering with the right index finger to the low tone and the left index finger to the high tone; 3 – counting the low tones; 4 – answering with the right index finger to low tones; We averaged stimulus locked ERP across each series and tones for extraverts and introverts separately. It was evident that the ERP differences between extraverts and introverts depend on the task complexity. We found P2, N2 and P3 latency differences and N1, P2, N2 and P3 amplitude differences. As whole extraverts showed larger N2 amplitudes and shorter N2 latencies. The differences were more pronounced in the task supposed less complexity and decreased with the increase of task complexity.

The human brain can only accommodate a circadian rhythm that closely follows 24 hours. Thus, for a work schedule to meet the brain’s hard-wired requirement, it must employ a 24 hour-based program. However, the 6 hours on, 12 hours off (6/12) submarine watchstanding schedule creates an 18-hour “day” that Submariners must follow. Clearly, the 6/12 schedule categorically fails to meet the brain’s operational design, and no schedule other than one tuned to the brain’s 24 hour rhythm can optimize performance. Providing Submariners with a 24 hour-based watchstanding schedule—combined with effective circadian entrainment techniques using carefully-timed exposure to light—would allow crewmembers to work at the peak of their daily performance cycle and acquire more restorative sleep. In the submarine environment, where access to natural light is absent, electric lighting can play an important role in actively entraining—and closely maintaining—circadian regulation. Another area that is likely to have particular importance in the submarine environment is the potential effect of light to help restore or maintain alertness.

Self-consciousness is a product of evolution. Few people today disagree with the evolutionary history of humans. But the nature of self-consciousness is still to be explained, and the story of evolution has rarely been used as a framework for studies on consciousness during the 20th century. This last point may be due to the fact that modern study of consciousness came up at a time where dominant philosophical movements were not in favor of evolutionist theories (Cunningham 1996). Research on consciousness based on Phenomenology or on Analytic Philosophy has been mostly taking the characteristics of humans as starting points. Relatively little has been done with bottom-up approaches, using performances of animals as a simpler starting point to understand the generation of consciousness through evolution. But this status may be changing, thanks to new tools coming from recent discoveries in neurology. The discovery of mirror neurons about ten years ago (Gallese et al. 1996, Rizzolatti et al. 1996) has allowed the built up of new conceptual tools for the understanding of intersubjectivity within humans and non human primates (Gallese 2001, Hurley 2005). Studies in these fields are still in progress, with discussions on the level of applicability of this natural intersubjectivity to non human primates (Decety and Chaminade 2003). We think that these subject/conspecific mental relations made possible by mirror neurons can open new paths for the understanding of the nature of self-consciousness via an evolutionist bottom-up approach. We propose here a scenario for the build up of self-consciousness through evolution by a specific analysis of two steps of evolution: first step from simple living elements to non human primates comparable to chimpanzees, and second step from these non human primates to humans. We identify these two steps as representing the evolution from basic animal awareness to body self-awareness, and from body self-awareness to self-consciousness. (we consider that today non human primates are comparable to what were pre-human primates). We position body self-awareness as corresponding to the performance of mirror self recognition as identified with chimpanzees and orangutans (Gallup). We propose to detail and understand the content of this body self-awareness through a specific evolutionist build up process using the performances of mirror neurons and group life. We address the evolutionary step from body self-awareness to self-consciousness by complementing the recently proposed approach where self-consciousness is presented as a by-product of body self-awareness amplification via a positive feedback loop resulting of anxiety limitation (Menant 2004). The scenario introduced here for the build up of self-consciousness through evolution leaves open the question about the nature of phenomenal-consciousness (Block 2002). We plan to address this question later on with the help of the scenario made available here.

Simulators, in particular driving simulators, are gaining importance not only for research and development purposes, but also for education, training and even recreation. Progress in computer graphics and performance allow for highly realistic simulator visuals. High-end models are becoming somewhat better at generating acceptable inertial self-motion information, sometimes even providing real (but limited) linear translation in addition to angular movements. Simpler versions do not generate inertial information at all (fixed-base simulators). Here, we present a study on a problem that often occurs with driving simulators, i.e., simulator sickness. This phenomenon closely resembles the classically experienced motion sickness and can make a user abort a simulator run within minutes. We investigated the hypothesis that simulator sickness is caused by a visual-vestibular conflict, comparing susceptibility in normals and in vestibular-loss patients. We studied the psychophysical reactions of subjects, and quantitatively recorded their neurovegetative activity, to improve understanding of the underlying causes of simulator sickness, and to develop an objective measure for monitoring purposes. We used a fixed-base simulator, with an urban circuit with many sharp turns and traffic lights. No vestibular input was received during driving simulation, thus creating numerous visual-vestibular conflict situations. Subjects were asked to indicate continuously their discomfort on a visual-analog scale. We studied 33 normals (19 became sick) and 6 bilateral vestibular-loss subjects (one became truly sick, 2 others somewhat). Sickness correlated strongly with an increase in anxiety (Spielberger STAI). The subjective discomfort readings correlated well with simultaneous neurovegetative data and with a symptom scoring test administered immediately afterwards. There was no clear indication of an age or gender dependence in the normals. The fact that a complete vestibular-loss patient became sick indicates that more parameters may be responsible for simulator sickness than just a visuo-vestibular conflict situation (anxiety, nauseating odours, etc.). - Supported by the European Union (QLK6-CT-2002-00151: EUROKINESIS).

What is the relationship between development of the nervous system and the emergence of voluntary motor behavior? This is the central question of the nature-nurture discussion that has intrigued child psychologists and pediatric neurologists for decades. This paper attempts to revisit this issue. Recent empirical evidence on how infants acquire multi-joint coordination and how children learn to adapt to novel force environments will be discussed with reference to the underlying development of the nervous system. The claim will be made that the developing human nervous system by no means constitutes an ideal controller. However, its redundancy, its ability to integrate multi-modal sensory information and motor commands and its facility of time-critical neural plasticity are features that may prove to be useful for the design of adaptive robots.

This paper proposes an explanation of the cognitive change that occurs as the creative process proceeds. During the initial, intuitive phase, each thought activates, and potentially retrieves information from, a large region containing many memory locations. Because of the distributed, content-addressable structure of memory, the diverse contents of these many locations merge to generate the next thought. Novel associations often result. As one focuses on an idea, the region searched and retrieved from narrows, such that the next thought is the product of fewer memory locations. This enables a shift from association-based to causation-based thinking, which facilitates the fine-tuning and manifestation of the creative work.

NEURON SOMA SIZE IN THE LEFT AND RIGHT HIPPOCAMPUS OF A GENIUS D.W. Zaidel* Dept Psychology, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Underlying brain features of a genius are not understood. It is not known if there is a smooth continuum between a genius and the thousands of the brightest minds alive today. The few postmortem studies of brains of remarkable mathematicians or physicists typically emphasized the neocortex. In the present study, the hippocampus of Albert Einstein (AE) was investigated postmortem. The importance of the hippocampus is established for long-term, explicit, implicit, and episodic memory, and establishment of semantic associations. A single microscope slide (Nissl-stained stained in Harvey[Image]s lab not long after AE[Image]s death at age 76 years) was available for the left and right sides. Soma size of pyramidal neurons in coronal sections of AE[Image]s left and right hippocampi were photographed, then digitized and systematically measured on a computer in hippocampal subfields CA1, CA2, CA3, CA4, and subiculum. An atypical left-right asymmetry emerged in AE, with soma size being consistently and significantly larger in the left than in the right side in all homologous subfields except for CA2, whereas in 10 ordinary adults, aged 22 to 84 years, there was minimal and inconsistent soma size asymmetry in direction (left vs right) or extent. However, the soma size variability revealed similarities in both AE and the ordinary adults, particularly in hippocampal subfields CA1 and CA2, bilaterally. The direction of the cell size asymmetry in AE[Image]s hippocampi could simply reflect age-related changes in combination with unusual neuronal connectivity of prenatal or experiential origin. This is difficult to ascertain, and the relationship between the hippocampal status at the time of his death and its role in his genius in his most creative years is a matter for debate.

This article is a theoretical consideration on the role of sensory pleasure and mental joy as optimizers of behavior. It ends with an axiomatic proposal. When they compare the human body to its environment, Philosophers recognise the cosmos as the Large Infinite, and the atomic particles as the Small Infinite. The human brain reaches such a degree of complexity that it may be considered as a third infinite in the universe, a Complex Infinite. It follows that any force capable of moving such an infinite deserves a place among the forces of the universe. Physicists have recognized four forces, the gravitational, the electromagnetic, the weak, and the strong nuclear force. Forces are defined in four dimentions (reversible or not in time) and it is postulated that these forces are valid and applicable everywhere. Pleasure and displeasure, the affective axis of consciousness, can move the infinitely complex into action and no human brain can avoid the trend to maximize its pleasure. Therefore, we suggest, axiomatically, that the affective capability of consciousness operates in a way similar to the four forces of the Physics, i.e. influences the behavior of conscious agents in a way similar to the way the four forces influence masses and particles. However, since a mental phenomenon is dimensioneless we propose to call the affective capability of consciousness the fifth influence rather than the fifth force.

Drosophila's behavioral studies can investigate human disease as well as various questions about behavioral neuroscience. This study aimed to examine the effect of strains on various Drosophila behavior parameters. The strains used were wildtype, ebony body, white eyes, and vestigial wings. Larval Crawling Assay, Pupa Position Assay, and Adult Climbing Assay were used as procedures for data collection. The data collected consisted of 1a) larval total distance, 1b) larval contraction number, 1c) distance per contraction, 1d) larval speed, 2) pupa position, 3a) the number of adults that successfully climbed, and 3b) climbing time. The data were analyzed using a one-way univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results showed that differences in strains could cause differences in Drosophila behavior, especially during the imago phase. The use of wild-type strains is recommended for use as a behavioral study on Drosophila, given the differences in wildtype and mutant behavior recorded in this study. This research is expected to be the basis of Drosophila's behavior study, which is still rarely conducted in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological spaces give natural framework for construction of mental representations. Neural model of psychological spaces provides a link between neuroscience and psychology. Categorization performed in high-dimensional spaces by dynamical associative memory models is approximated with low-dimensional feedforward neural models calculating probability density functions in psychological spaces. Applications to the human categorization experiments are discussed.

Values are critical for intelligent behavior, since values determine interests, and interests determine relevance. Therefore we address relevance and its role in intelligent behavior in animals and machines. Animals avoid exhaustive enumeration of possibilities by focusing on relevant aspects of the environment, which emerge into the (cognitive) foreground, while suppressing irrelevant aspects, which submerge into the background. Nevertheless, the background is not invisible, and aspects of it can pop into the foreground if background processing deems them potentially relevant. Essential to these ideas are questions of how contexts are switched, which defines cognitive/behavioral episodes, and how new contexts are created, which allows the efficiency of foreground/background processing to be extended to new behaviors and cognitive domains. Next we consider mathematical characterizations of the foreground/background distinction, which we treat as a dynamic separation of the concrete space into (approximately) orthogonal subspaces, which are processed differently. Background processing is characterized by large receptive fields which project into a space of relatively low dimension to accomplish rough categorization of a novel stimulus and its approximate location. Such background processing is partly innate and partly learned, and we discuss possible correlational (Hebbian) learning mechanisms. Foreground processing is characterized by small receptive fields which project into a space of comparatively high dimension to accomplish precise categorization and localization of the stimuli relevant to the context. We also consider mathematical models of valences and affordances, which are an aspect of the foreground. Cells processing foregound information have no fixed meaning (i.e., their meaning is contextual), so it is necessary to explain how the processing accomplished by foreground neurons can be made relative to the context. Thus we consider the properties of several simple mathematical models of how the contextual representation controls foreground processing. We show how simple correlational processes accomplish the contextual separation of foreground from background on the basis of differential reinforcement. That is, these processes account for the contextual separation of the concrete space into disjoint subspaces corresponding to the foreground and background. Since an episode may comprise the activation of several contexts (at varying levels of activity) we consider models, suggested by quantum mechanics, of foreground processing in superposition. That is, the contextual state may be a weighted superposition of several pure contexts, with a corresponding superposition of the foreground representations and the processes operating on them. This leads us to a consideration of the nature and origin of contexts. Although some contexts are innate, many are learned. We discuss a mathematical model of contexts which allows a context to split into several contexts, agglutinate from several contexts, or to constellate out of relatively acontextual processing. Finally, we consider the acontextual processing which occurs when the current context is no longer relevant, and may trigger the switch to another context or the formation of a new context. We relate this to the situation known as "breakdown" in phenomenology.

Parturition in mammals occurs in the context of sensory, neurochemical, and endocrinological factors that are orchestrated and timed so that maternal behavior and the object of the behavior, the neonate, "emerge" almost simultaneously. Among the factors found to be important for the suppression of pain during delivery as well as for the emergence of caretaking behavior toward the young, are changes in endogenous opioid activity in the central nervous system. In most mammalian species, these changes are likely initiated by sensory events arising in the distended reproductive tract and abdominal musculature, and are modified by the parturitional endocrine milieu and substances ingested in amniotic fluid and placenta (e.g., Placental Opioid-Enhancing Factor, or POEF). In addition, ingestion of afterbirth material may decrease the probability that the vaginal/cervical sensory stimulation arising during delivery will trigger pseudopregnancy, a condition that decreases, if not eliminates, the likelihood of fertilization in the postpartum estrus. The research described herein primarily focuses on elucidating the manner in which POEF modulates opioid antinociception, and otherwise participates in opioid-mediated parturitional events.

The binding problem is regarded as one of today's key questions about brain function. Several solutions have been proposed, yet the issue is still controversial. The goal of this article is twofold. Firstly, we propose a new experimental paradigm requiring feature binding, the delayed binding response task. Secondly, we propose a binding mechanism employing fast reversible synaptic plasticity to express the binding between concepts. We discuss the experimental predictions of our model for the delayed binding response task.

Speaking is conceiving, not translating what has already been represented inside the brain in a hidden way

The EnerCage system is designed to enable electrophysiology experiments of any duration in experimental arenas of any size. Optimized overlapping planar spiral coils (PSCs) provide closed-loop wireless power and data to a mobile unit on a small, freely behaving animal subject. The system tracks the location of the mobile unit with an array of 3-axis magnetic sensors and only activates the closest PSC, thereby reducing power dissipation and heat within the cage. A control algorithm collects data from all the sensors, organizes it by physical location, and systematically compares the magnitudes of each to two thresholds to determine the location of a small magnetic tracer embedded in the mobile unit. An in vivo experiment was conducted for one hour using a 1.03 × 0.9 m2 EnerCage prototype in a physiology lab, where the system was able to continuously deliver 20 mW to a dummy load and maintain a steady 4V supply on the rat headstage (mobile unit). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]