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This study, built upon prior work by E. Pascarella, C. Ethington, and J. Smart (1988), examined the influence of college upon the civic values held by students. Data were obtained from the Cooperative Institutional Research Program, a national longitudinal study of college students. Four sets of variables were used: civic values of students in 1985 and 1989; student individual characteristics; measures of college experience; and organizational characteristics of the institution. The within-school model used in the study showed that students who were more involved in college activities had better civic values than those with less involvement. Another finding was that church-affiliated, or more politically oriented, colleges were more effective in developing student civic values than other types of institutions. Six tables and two appendixes describe the variables and the statistics; summarize data and results for civic value factors, a random coefficient model, an intercept-and slopes-as-outcome model, and a one-way ANOVA model; and show proportion of variance in the final model. (Contains 19 references.) (CH)

A 4-year longitudinal experiment conducted in Tennessee examined class-size effects on student achievement in kindergarten through grade 3. The Student Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR) project included more than 7,000 students per year in 79 schools in 42 school systems. Class size categories were: small class (13-17 students), regular class (22-26 students), and regular class with full-time teacher aide. Students and teachers were randomly assigned to class categories. The study found that students in small classes made significantly (statistically and educationally) greater gains than other students. In addition, minority students in small classes benefitted more than minority students in other class categories. It was also determined that gains achieved in kindergarten were maintained through third grade. Analyses showed a continuing, powerful class-size effect in all locations. However, no consistent teacher-aide effect was evident in the study. The Lasting Benefits Study (LBS) had already analysed data from a sample of STAR pupils through grades 4 and 5 in an attempt to determine whether gains STAR students achieved in small classes carried through to those grades. The LBS found that students who were in STAR small classes at least in grade 3 were statistically and educationally ahead of other STAR students. Three appendices include STAR data collection instruments, primary and extended analyses designs, and analysis of variance for cognitive outcomes. (Author/JPT)

An analysis of variance approach to estimating reliability is examined. This approach uses an internal-consistency index for estimating the reliability of survey instruments containing ranked items, and is recommended when the relative ranking of item means is of interest to survey researchers. The computation of this index is demonstrated using data from three American College Testing Program surveys: Student Opinion Survey, Entering Student Survey, and Adult Learner Needs Assessment Survey. Eighteen of the 250 postsecondary institutions that utilized these surveys between 1980 and 1983 were studied. Survey records were analyzed using a coefficient reliability procedure available through the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. The reliability estimate requires little computation, since the mean square values necessary to calculate the estimate may be obtained directly from analysis of variance tables. Since the approach is based on the internal-consistency of raters' responses, only one administration of the instrument is necessary. The major problem in using the proposed approach centers on the treatment of missing data. A bibliography is appended. (SW)

This introduction to the theory and application of multivariate analysis is designed to assist institutional researchers who are interested in using these techniques to analyze issues within their respective institutions. A brief introduction to multivariate theory, consisting of a rationale for multivariate statistics and an overview of selected multivariate techniques, is presented. Applications of multivariate analysis in institutional research, obtained from a review of the literature in the field, are discussed, with particular emphasis given to studies because of their utilization of intrainstitutional, rather than interinstitutional data. The studies described used a variety of multivariate statistical procedures, including multivariate analysis of variance, discriminant analysis, canonical correlation, and factor analysis. Possible applications are suggested in the traditional institutional research areas of students, faculty, academic programs, resource allocation, and institutional evaluation. Additional potential applications of multivariate analysis in institutional research are also suggested, including using discriminant analysis as a classification technique. (SC)

The Panel on Guidelines for Statistical Software was organized in 1990 to document, assess, and prioritize problem areas regarding quality and reliability of statistical software; present prototype guidelines in high priority areas; and make recommendations for further research and discussion. This document provides the following papers presented at the Panel's public forum for gathering material for its deliberations from a wide range of statistical scientists from academe, industry, and government: (1) "Morning Session Opening Remarks" (B. Ryan); (2) "Richness for the One-Way ANOVA Layout" (K. E. Muller); (3) "Serendipitous Data and Future Statistical Software" (P. F. Velleman); (4) "Morning Discussion"; (5) "Afternoon Session Opening Remarks " (F. Young); (6) "An Industry View" (A. Kirsch); (7) "Guidance for One-Way ANOVA" (W. DuMouchel); (8) "Incorporating Statistical Expertise into Data Analysis Software" (D. Pregibon); (9) "Afternoon Discussion"; and (10) "Closing Remarks" (W. Eddy). Three appendices give brief descriptions of the speakers, position statements of some participants, and a list of all forum participants. (SLD)

This paper presents findings of a study that used goal orientation theory as a guiding framework for a collaborative effort with middle school principals, teachers, and parents over a 3-year period. The intervention sought to change policies and practices so that they would reflect more of a task-goal orientation and less of an ability-goal orientation. The study assessed students' perceptions of the goal emphases in their classrooms; their personal orientation to task, ability, and extrinsic goals; their reported use of deep processing strategies; and their academic efficacy beliefs in mathematics and English 1 year before the transition to middle school and again at the end of the sixth and seventh grades in both the "demonstration" school and a comparison school. Fifth-grade students scheduled to attend the demonstration school and students scheduled to attend the comparison school demonstrated no differences on any of the measures. After the transition, students in the demonstration school exhibited a more positive profile of personal goals, efficacy beliefs, and perceptions of the classroom goal structure than did students in the comparison school. Results are discussed in terms of implications for middle school reform and with regard to the use of goal-orientation theory to guide school reform efforts. Five figures and four tables are included. (Contains 71 references.) (LMI)

This paper presents findings of a study that examined how principals' instructional management behaviors are conditioned by contextual factors such as principals' personal characteristics, school district conditions, and other external factors. The study used the instructional leadership model advocated by S. T. Bassart, D. C. Dwyer, R. Rowan and G. V. Lee (1982) to analyze the national database available from the Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS) established by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Findings suggest that a number of contextual factors significantly influenced principals' effectiveness in instructional management. Overall, factors such as gender, age, education, work experience, school size, urbanicity, and percentage of minority enrollment were tested as significantly related to principals' perceived effectiveness in instructional leadership, either positively or negatively. Some factors that were previously assumed to be important factors were found to be insignificant. For example, principals' training, their academic major in education administration, their school's cultural diversity, and affluence level of students' families did not seem to affect principals' instructional management behaviors. Thirteen tables and one figure are included. (Contains 38 references.) (LMI)

Most research on year-round education has focused on the effectiveness of year-round versus traditional-calendar schools. This paper presents findings of a study that examined student differences within a year-round elementary school by attendance cohorts (tracks). Specifically, the study sought to determine track differences in writing achievement. The data were collected from 430 students in grades 2-6 in a southern California elementary school, who were asked to respond to a writing prompt. Students' responses were analyzed by a general linear analysis of variance approach, with track, gender, and grade as the independent variables and writing score as the dependent variable. Findings indicate that students in track A performed significantly better than their counterparts in tracks B and C. Students in track A wrote better with increasing grade level, and students in tracks B and C did not show improvement with increasing grade level. Girls scored higher than boys, and older students received higher scores than did younger students. The higher level of student performance in track A, which featured a more traditional schedule, may have been associated with higher levels of parent interest in their children's placement and the tendency of students to remain in that track. Two tables are included. The appendix contains the scoring guide. (LMI)

The majority of research investigating gender-related differences in problem-solving ability has focused on the product of word problem solving--the problem solution. This paper reports an investigation of potential gender-related effects on sixth-graders of an explicitly stated problem-solving plan. Two versions of the test were given: the formatted form, containing the seven steps of a problem-solving plan on each of the pages, with space for student work; and the unformatted form, containing only the word problems. Three classes of students (n=73) were administered the formatted test first, followed by the unformatted version. The remaining three classes of students (n=82) were administered the unformatted version first, followed by the formatted version. Females and males did equally well on both forms of a four-item problem-solving test. Students scored significantly higher on posttests that included the problem-solving plan. It was concluded that females benefited from free exploration of problem situations followed by an organized exploration. Contains 24 references. (MKR)

During the 1980s, considerable attention was given to the influence of "effective" elementary schools on students' school achievement. Effective schools were typically defined as those with certain characteristics that had been found to be positively correlated with student achievement scores. This paper presents findings of a longitudinal study that investigated whether students who attended effective elementary schools maintained their high achievement scores during their middle-school years. The study compared student outcomes of two elementary schools officially recognized as effective and those of two regular elementary schools in one urban school district. Graduates of all four elementary schools progressed to the same middle school. Sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-graders who had graduated from the four elementary schools were compared on the basis of achievement test scores, honor roll membership, and annual number of absences. Findings indicate that the test score advantage demonstrated by graduates of the effective elementary schools tended to dissipate as students advanced into secondary school. In addition, school status had no statistically significant effect on honor roll membership or absenteeism. Possible explanations for the results include: (1) five years of effective schooling is not enough time to make a difference in subjct matter achievement growth; (2) there is a disjuncture between elementary and secondary subject matter; (3) test scores are inadequate to measure all levels and kinds of knowledge; and (4) the research design may be flawed. Ten tables are included. (LMI)

This study investigated whether and to what degree management majors at one small, liberal arts institution actually "used" course knowledge on their job. Phase 1 surveyed all management majors graduating from the institution between 1988-1992, asking graduates to estimate the percentage of useful knowledge gained from each component of their undergraduate curriculum. Of the 94 completed surveys returned, 62 were from individuals who had not gone on to graduate study. An analysis of variance identified 13 graduates with very "high" levels of knowledge utilization. Phase 2 consisted of in-depth interviews with 12 of these graduates. Findings revealed that interviewees felt that: (1) competencies essential for performing successfully as a manager are the ability to write, speak and work well in a group and to understand one's own uniqueness; (2) general education courses contributed the knowledge utilized in these competencies; (3) little of course content presented by faculty resided "top of mind"; (4) a "feeling of knowing" comprised an important element in grounded theory; (5) theoretical course knowledge was perceived as such; and (6) teachers and teaching were at the center of all truly meaningful classroom experiences. (Contains nine references.) (Author/CK)

This paper reports the results of an investigation into the stability of school effects in Dutch secondary education across both years and subjects. The following research questions were addressed: (1) What percentage of the total variance in student achievement per subject can be attributed to differences between schools and to what extent are these effects stable across years? (2) To what extent are school effects stable across subjects? and (3) To what extent does the instability across years interact with the instability across subjects? Methodology involved analysis of datasets provided by the Dutch Ministry of Education and Sciences--the examination results of pre-university track students for the years 1983, 1984, and 1987; senior secondary track students for the years 1983 and 1987; and junior secondary track students for the years 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1987. The school effects per subject were found to be fairly stable across years, but schools appeared to produce remarkably divergent results across subjects. Findings also indicated a substantial interaction effect of instability across years and subjects. The results corroborate the conclusions of recent studies that stressed the important role of departments in secondary schools. The general differences between schools with respect to student achievement were very modest, accounting for no more than 4 percent of the total variance in student achievement. Two figures and one table are included. Contains 43 references. (LMI)

Two longitudinal studies examined a "double deficit" hypothesis of reading disorders that contends that along with a core phonological deficit, slow speed of lexical access disrupts the efficient formation of orthographic representations and their quick retrieval. In the first study, 38 children from 6 classrooms in a predominantly white, middle class public school, were tested repeatedly from early in grade 2 to the end of grade 4. Subjects were divided into groups (good decoder-fast reader, good decoder-slow reader, poor decoder-fast reader, and poor decoders-slow readers) based on grade 4 scores. Multiple analysis of variance examined effects of two levels of nonword decoding and word latency with time of test a repeated measure. Main effects of both factors and of time were observed on many measures, and few interactions of the factors occurred. In the second study, 82 children from 3 public schools representing a range of different socioeconomic levels were tested in the spring of every year on a battery of reading and language measures from kindergarten to grade 4. Children were divided into groups similar to those in the first experiment. Analyses similar to those in the first study were conducted. Results of both studies indicate that the two deficits have independent, additive effects. Findings suggest that the processes resulting in rapid reading reflect in large part a cognitive skill independent of phonological decoding, and that a double deficit conceptualization of reading disability is critical for a more comprehensive account of reading disabled children. (Twelve tables of data are included.) (RS)

A study investigated the relationship among the linguistic units that make up spoken language, the symbols of written language, and how spoken language is mapped onto written language (the alphabetic principle). Subjects, 79 kindergarten children from 5 classrooms in 4 schools in a large southeastern school district, were tested for their knowledge of the alphabetic principle, phonemic awareness, letter name knowledge, and orthographic knowledge. Results indicated that: (1) significant amounts of the variance in understanding of the alphabetic principle can be explained by phonemic awareness and letter name knowledge; but (2) these two variables did not do a very good job of explaining the variance in scores measuring children's understanding of the orthographic patterns of written English; (3) the distribution of scores on the orthographic information measure indicated that children were aware that words did not contain numbers and that most children were able to discern mock and letters in words; and (4) phonemic awareness rarely developed in the absence of letter name knowledge. Instructionally the implications are that experimentation with paper and pen may be as important to the literacy development of children as is reading. (Six tables and three figures of data.) (RS)

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a computer-generated feedback system when used in conjunction with an analysis of videotaped performances of students' speeches and model speeches. Subjects, 112 university students enrolled in 9 sections of a required undergraduate public speaking course, were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: group 1 received handwritten feedback before viewing their videotape; group 2 received handwritten feedback after viewing their videotape; group 3 received computer-generated feedback before viewing their videotape; and group 4 received computer-generated feedback after viewing their videotape. Each student was required to give five informative or persuasive speeches during the semester, the speeches increasing in length from one to two minutes for the first speech to six to seven minutes for the fourth speech and returning to the one-to-two-minute length for the fifth and final speech, which could be either persuasive or informative. Results indicated that: (1) the construct of modeling speech behavior and self-analysis of speech performance improved those speech skill traits that were easily observed, such as style, vocal, and gestural qualities; (2) the computer feedback method was more helpful than the handwritten feedback method in improving those observable speech skills; (3) neither treatment appeared to be significantly better in improving speaking skills on the non-observable speech skills of organization and development; and (4) receiving instructor feedback before or after self-analysis of the videotaped speech performance did not significantly benefit either treatment group on improving speech skill. (Five tables of data are included; 32 references, a chart presenting rating criteria, sample rating sheets, and a sample evaluation form are attached.) (RS)

Public support for various media rights was examined in this study. Data were analyzed from a national probability sample of 1,508 adults, with items pertaining to media formed into three indexes: Morality, Routine Journalism, and Identification. These indexes were used as dependent variables in a multiple analysis of variance test based on the demographic variables of sex, age, education, and political orientation. Results indicated that: (1) men supported all rights significantly more than women, with greater disparity for routine journalism practices; (2) support for media rights was higher at the left side of the political spectrum than the right, especially for practices that relate to moral issues; (3) as education increased, support for rights tended to increase, with the greatest change occurring for routine journalism practices; (4) increasing age seemed to be associated with decreasing support; and (5) identification of rape victims and juveniles charged with crime received little support from any group. (Three tables and 4 figures of data are included; 27 references are attached.) (Author/RS)

Findings of a study that examined the relationship among three variables of principal leadership--principal vision, environmental robustness, and teacher sense of autonomy--to school leadership are presented in this paper. Methodology involved an ex post facto analysis of a 1990 survey of 1,338 teachers in 34 Oregon public high schools. Interviews were also conducted with eight principals. Findings indicate that: (1) teachers' perceptions of their principals' effectiveness in advancing a school vision are positively correlated with their perceptions of a robust school climate; (2) a positive relationship exists between teachers' perceptions of their principals' effectiveness in advancing a school vision and their sense of autonomy; and (3) a significant positive relationship exists between teachers' sense of autonomy and their perceptions of a robust school climate. The initial purpose of the study was to view the principal's vision as the catalyst for leadership in the high school. However, robustness, which implies less routinization and monotony in the school structure, may play an essential role. Four tables are included. (Contains 58 references.) (LMI)

This paper reports on a study designed to identify the relationships among the context variables of sense of efficacy, teacher empowerment, and school climate as perceived by 1,802 Kansas City (Missouri) teachers. Factors related to teacher sense of efficacy (teaching efficacy and personal efficacy), to teacher empowerment, defined as the perceived influence of teachers in important decision-making activities, and to school instructional climate and school atmosphere, which include lack of impediments to effective learning and degree of teacher/staff collegiality, were examined. The study also attempted to identify differences in the strength of the relationships across grade levels, to examine the notion of stability of efficacy, and to delineate the extent of the relationship between the three context variables and student achievement (grades one through five). Findings included indications that: (1) efficacy, empowerment, and instructional climate factors differ significantly across schools, levels, and grades; (2) personal and teaching efficacy were highly, although inversely, related; (3) school atmosphere tended to be related to lack of impediments to effective instruction and collegiality among teachers; (4) efficacy was strongly related to both classroom and school decision making; and (5) the contribution of the context variables to achievement differed across levels, grades, and test content. (About half of the document consists of figures and tables.) (IAH)

A study examined the effects of word type and frequency of exposure on the incidental learning of unknown words in context. A target word pool of 60 words was selected to ensure unfamiliarity to the subjects, 110 male and female average fifth-grade students attending three private elementary schools in New York City. Students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: Simple-Synonym (SS) words, one exposure; SS words, 4 exposures; Concept-Challenge (CC) words, 1 exposure; and CC words, 4 exposures. (SS words consisted of unknown words whose concept was known by the students and could be defined by a one-word definition; CC words consisted of words whose concepts were not known but could be taught by using familiar examples.) Two vocabulary measures were administered to assess the students' ability to define the target words. Students were asked: (1) to supply a definition; and (2) to select a definition from a multiple-choice format. Results revealed a main effect for exposure level in which more contextual exposures produced better acquisition of meaning of unknown words than fewer exposures. Results also revealed that more CC words were learned than SS words, which was opposite to the trend expected. Findings suggest that CC words by virtue of their conceptual nature may require a deeper form of processing since they are embedded in more elaborative passages. (One figure and one table containing data are included; one appendix listing sample words is attached.) (KEH)

Detailed methodology used to evaluate a causal model of school environment is presented in this report. The model depicts societal features that influence school district values and organizational characteristics, which in turn influence school operations and personnel attitudes and values. These school variables affect school community members' perceptions of school climate, which then influence student outcomes. Questionnaires were completed by 352 principals, 14,721 teachers, and 24,874 students from 362 junior and senior high schools in 36 states and Canada. Findings suggest that student and/or teacher climate variables played a significant role in all the analyses. Of the sociodemographic variables, the percentages of students receiving free lunches and the percent of minority students in the school had the largest and most consistently direct and indirect effects on the outcome variables. Most school input variables' effects on outcomes were mediated by school climate variables. The findings indicate reasonable support for Keefe's mediated (1985) model of school outcomes and constitute the basis for a comprehensive assessment of school environments and possible interventions. Seven figures and one table of final variables are included. (8 references) (LMI)

The effects of several variables on social, emotional, and academic development of high school students were evaluated. Variables were: (1) educational level of parents; (2) marital status of parents; (3) number of children in the family; and (4) family stability. Subjects were 52 10th-grade college-preparatory students from a southern public high school. Data were collected using: the Measures of Psychosocial Development, a self-report inventory based on Eriksonian constructs; the School Environment Preference Survey; and the Study Attitudes and Methods Survey, a measure of dimensions of attitude, motivation, and study habits that contribute to success in school. Multivariate analysis of variance was computed for student scores on each scale of the three measures. Results indicate significant differences in autonomy, initiative, ego integrity, guilt, isolation, academic interest, study methods, manipulation, and alienation toward authority. The implications of the findings for programs to enhance the social, emotional, and academic development of adolescents are discussed. Two tables present data from the study. (SLD)

This study is an attempt at a cohesive characterization of the concept of essay reliability. As such, it takes as a basic premise that previous and current practices in reporting reliability estimates for essay tests have certain shortcomings. The study provides an analysis of these shortcomings--partly to encourage a fuller understanding of the concept of reliability as applied to essay testing, and partly to build the case that the framework of generalizability theory offers a much more satisfactory way of characterizing the concept. The study applies generalizability theory to existing research to illustrate that this approach is an improvement over the usual methods of estimating essay reliability. The paper also argues that the classical approach to reliability has lead to a preoccupation with inter-marker agreement which in turn has led to a formulation of the "reliability problem" that makes it not susceptible of solution. Conceptual grounds for tolerating inter-marker disagreement are advanced and the paper discusses conditions under which this may be so. However, the paper explains how generalizability theory remains an appropriate framework for estimating the reliability of essay scores whatever assumptions one chooses to make regarding inter-marker consistency. (Author)

This paper describes a study of the effects of horseback riding on physically disabled adults. The first therapeutic riding centers were built during the late 1950s in Great Britain. Today, there are well over 350 accredited therapeutic riding centers in North America. Therapeutic riding is categorized into three areas: sport/recreation, medical, and education/psychology. While evidence of improved coordination, strength, and self-concept appears as a result of therapeutic horseback riding, scientific research and evidence of benefits is lacking. The current study used 15 physically disabled adults who were given tests before and after an 8-week therapeutic horseback riding program. Another group of 24 physically disabled adults, half of whom took part in the riding program, were given posttests only. The most noted disabilities in this study were head trauma, visual impairment, arthritis, cerebral palsy, and epilepsy. Participants were tested in self-concept, and in strength and coordination. Strength and coordination were measured using an electronic Strength and Coordination Instrument (SCI Model #1). Results showed improvement in coordination for subjects who participated in the riding program. No significant differences were found in self-concept or strength scores. The paper contains 38 references. (TES)

The purposes of this paper are to: (1) describe some of the serious shortcomings in the current use of tests of statistical significance, (2) discuss how misuses are perpetuated in some widely used references, and (3) present an alternative significance testing model that overcomes some, but not all, of the shortcomings of the currently used method. For the purposes of this paper, the discussion is restricted to fixed effects analysis of variance (ANOVA) (including t-tests), which is perhaps the most pervasive of the data analyses used by educational researchers. (Author)

This paper provides an understanding of the conceptual and operational relationships between evaluation, content analysis, and microcomputers so that evaluation practitioners can better address applied content analysis problems used in their work. The first section presents a general model for conducting an evaluation effort that focuses on information, actions, and standards of quality. This framework: (1) highlights key components of evaluation and content analysis information in terms of their underlying relationships; (2) identifies basic actions used to develop evaluation and content analysis information; (3) discusses different standards of quality that have emerged for judging the information and related processes; (4) presents working definitions of evaluation and content analysis; (5) consolidates these concepts into the presented model; and (6) discusses content analysis tasks related to the model's basic actions that can be implemented with the use of microcomputers. The second section describes an experimental study in which microcomputers were used to help pre-service and practicing educators perform a content analysis of responses to an open-ended survey question used in a simulated evaluation effort. This two-part experimental study focuses on the reliability and validity of developing a new content analysis category system, and coding responses based on an established category system. (PN)

This paper evaluates the logic underlying various criticisms of statistical significance testing and makes specific recommendations for scientific and editorial practice that might better increase the knowledge base. Reliance on the traditional hypothesis testing model has led to a major bias against nonsignificant results and to misinterpretation of significant results. A finding of statistical significance does not mean that the null hypothesis is false, since there are many factors affecting statistical significance such as sample size and the measurement reliability of the data. Furthermore, statistical significance alone does not permit evaluation of the importance of a finding. An effect size statistic, such as eta-squared, is more appropriate for this purpose, and editors of scholarly publications should encourage routine reporting of effect sizes. Greater reporting of nonsignificant results should also be encouraged, accompanied by power analyses to estimate Type II error. Nonsignificant results can be meaningful if the study's power to detect an effect was high. Finally, the paper emphasizes the crucial role of replication in separating true effects from Type I errors. The paper integrates analyses and criticisms of statistical practice from a variety of sources--77 references are included. (LPG)

The paper identifies and addresses four methodological weaknesses common to most previous studies that have used LISREL confirmatory factor analysis to test for the factorial validity and invariance of a single measuring instrument. Specifically, the paper demonstrates the steps involved in: (1) conducting sensitivity analyses to determine a statistically best-fitting, yet substantively most meaningful baseline model; (2) testing for partial measurement invariance; (3) testing for the invariance of factor variances and covariances, given partial measurement invariance; and (4) testing for the invariance of test item and subscale reliabilities. These procedures are illustrated with item response data from the Perceived Competence Scale for Children from 129 normal and 132 gifted students in grade 5 and 113 normal and 117 gifted students in grade 8 from two public school systems in Ottawa (Ontario). Seven tables present study data. (Author/SLD)

The role of the principal as leader has been a subject of considerable debate and research in education. This study examines the extent of variation in leadership behavior and activities among urban high school principals. Data were collected through interviews with principals and teachers in national samples of urban comprehensive high schools and magnet high schools. The findings show that the extent of principal leadership varies widely among both comprehensive and magnet high schools. Comprehensive high school principals tend to provide more leadership in administrative areas than in educational areas; only a small minority are highly rated on all of the measures. Almost half of the magnet high school principals provide strong leadership in all areas. The extent of principal leadership is also analyzed by differences in school and district contexts. References are included, along with an appendix showing the variable indicators in the survey of comprehensive high schools. (Author/TE)

The knowledge gap hypothesis predicts that infusions of information into an environment will lead to stronger relationships between education and knowledge for higher socioeconomic (SES) segments of the population, and ultimately, a relative gap between higher and lower SES groups. The hypothesis usually focuses on mass media but is also relevant to small groups and one-to-one communication. In two studies, new parents' infant development knowledge was the focus. Two self-selected groups were examined--123 less educated first-time mothers from Belfast, Northern Ireland, and a more advantaged group of 117 mothers and fathers in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Variables were formal education, 2 modified Brazelton demonstrations of infants' abilities (face-to-face or small group), experience with babies, and interpersonal networks of friends and relatives. Among both groups, knowledge gaps tended to close or even reverse over about 2 months' time. The Brazelton interventions were effective among the less educated in decreasing knowledge differentials. Knowledge gaps based on experience also tended to narrow, but gaps widened between men and women. Largest inequities observed were those between parents who received a modified Brazelton demonstration on either a small group or individual level (or both) and those who did not have this intervention. Exposure to a form of the Brazelton contributed to decreased knowledge differentials; exposure to both forms nearly closed education-based gaps. (Contains 4 figures and 4 tables of data, 15 notes, and 65 references.) (Author/NKA)

The contention of this paper is that logicality and emotionality are not two poles of a continuum but orthogonal dimensions which may exist to varying degrees in an argument. It was hypothesized that: (1) logicality and emotionality would be perceived as independent components by subject; and (2) messages high in logic would have more influence on attitudes than messages low in logic. In a series of eight experiments, the two dimensions were objectively manipulated within written essays in a 2x2 ANOVA design. Subjects (an average of 67 per experiment) were undergraduates at a small midwestern college. Subjects' ratings confirmed the subjective independence of the dimensions. Attitude change as a function of high/low logicality and/or emotionality was also examined. While emotionality had no effect, there was a weak but consistent effect for logicality; but even the reading of illogical essays resulted in attitudes significantly different from those of a control group. One figure and one table of data are included. Twenty-four references are attached. (Author/SR)

Previous laboratory research has found that self-disclosure by a speaker identified as a political officeholder results in a decrease in persuasiveness, whereas similar disclosure by nonofficials increases persuasiveness. Two experiments were conducted to examine this effect further. In experiment 1, subjects were 75 male and 77 female undergraduates in an introductory psychology course who received credit for participation in the study. Subjects read a speech and completed a questionnaire concerning the persuasiveness of the speech. Results indicated that the decreased persuasion effect was found for speakers identified as either a male or female officeholder. In experiment 2, a control condition was added in which subjects heard about the disclosed information without actual exposure to the disclosure. Subjects in this condition, 47 male and 72 female undergraduate students, found the officeholder more persuasive than did subjects exposed to the self-disclosure. Thus, the act of disclosing itself, rather than the information obtained from the disclosure, appears to be responsible for the effect. (Contains nine references and two tables of data.) (RS)

A study used semiotics to examine the graphic elements within corporate trademarks. The trademarks from 247 "Fortune" 500 corporations were placed into 86 different categories of graphic elements intended to connote 14 different qualities. Subjects, 40 college students and 61 business professionals, evaluated 9 sets of 12 trademarks in terms of their intended meanings. Results indicated that in seven of the nine cases, the trademarks did connote their intended meanings. Findings suggest support for the premise that there are semantic meanings to visual phonemes. Findings also bolster the idea that the image is a valid design for communication studies. (Contains 39 references and 1 table of data.) (RS)

To explore the possibility that the gender make-up of a class may predict the gender specificity of the language used by instructors, a study examined Graduate Teaching Assistants (GTA) and the number of gender examples they used. Subjects were eight graduate teaching assistants instructing a basic speech communication course and seven GTAs teaching a basic history course. In the basic communication courses there were approximately 260 students while there were 230 students enrolled in the history course. The number of gender-specific examples used by GTAs was recorded for each class and this number was compared with the gender make-up of each specific class. Three 2-way analysis of variance were conducted to examine the difference in examples used by male or female GTAs in classes which were predominately male or female. Results indicated that GTAs adapt their examples to the classroom gender majority. (Four tables of data are included.) Contains 18 references. (NH)

A study established the logical validity of instructional activities for teaching reading evaluatively. These activities operationalized a theory of literacy and a model of reading comprehension developed by L. Dagostino and J. Carifio that specify 20 general characteristics of literate students who read evaluatively. Nineteen secondary classroom teachers were randomly assigned three characteristics for which they were to construct two instructional activities each. The 114 activities constructed were then randomly assigned to the 19 teachers to assess the degree to which the activities logically reflected the characteristic for which they were constructed. In terms of the instructional activities, all 3 judges agreed that 66 (58%) of the activities reflected the characteristics and 2 of the 3 judges agreed that 108 (95%) of the activities reflected the characteristics. These results supported the view that these 20 characteristics can be translated into valid instructional activities by experienced classroom teachers. (Three tables of data are included.) (Author/RS)

A study investigated whether differences exist in the freshman-level course grades between the "high-risk" college freshmen enrolled in a linked-course developmental program and the other freshmen who were not required to participate in the developmental program. Subjects, 286 "non-developmental" freshmen and 71 freshmen identified as either "high developmental" or "low developmental" through a combination of test scores and a written essay, all took the same three Freshman Studies Module Exams during a fall semester at St. Edward's University in Texas. Semester grade point averages (GPAs) were based on all courses taken, while cumulative GPAs were based on degree-credit-bearing courses only--developmental course grades were not included. Exam grades, final course grades, semester GPA, and cumulative GPA were used as variables in an analysis of variance. Results indicated no significant differences between the groups for the final course grades; and the "high risk" students successfully completed their first semester of course work, although their level of success did not always equal that of non-developmental students. Implications of these findings are important to any college or university with a flexible admission policy in support of a commitment to serving a diverse student body. (Three tables of data are included.) (RS)

A study examined the predictive validity of two methods of prior knowledge assessment: free association and prediction. Subjects, 72 sixth graders from suburban public and private schools, were divided into four groups: standard free association; standard free association plus prediction; definitional free association; and definitional free association plus prediction. Subjects read two expository and two narrative texts, were asked to free associate and/or predict passage elements, retold the passage, and answered comprehension questions. Data from the 57 students whose comprehension was above 50% on at least one passage were subjected to multivariate analysis. Results indicated that: (1) although definitional instructions did not yield higher prior knowledge scores than free association instructions, the correlations between the knowledge scores and comprehension of narrative text for the two instructional groups were different; (2) in expository text, none of the correlations between responses to concepts and retelling or comprehension were significant in either instructional condition; (3) prediction of main ideas prior to reading was correlated with retelling and comprehension of expository text, but less so with narrative text; and (4) the number of correct main ideas predicted was very low. Findings suggest that definitional instruction tapped more directly what students knew, and did not know, about concepts. (Nineteen references are attached.) (RS)

A study investigated whether excessive television viewing coupled with communication suppression by parents in the preschool years had a distinct impact on the development of communication apprehension (CA) in children and on college-age young people. Subjects (average age 21.8 years and 99% Caucasian) were selected from speech classes at a southern United States junior college in order to give a broad spectrum of apprehension or lack thereof. A self-report questionnaire and the last six questions of the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension. Results indicated that: (1) excessive television viewing in early childhood was linked to communication apprehension; and (2) there was a non-significant relationship between television viewing and communication suppression. A discussion of these issues could serve as a warning for parents who want their children to avoid communication apprehension. (Three tables of data are included; 27 references and the self-report questionnaire are attached.) (RS)

A study compared types of activities associated with the Newspaper in Education (NIE) program with current newspaper reading habits through a survey of 263 respondents under the age of 40 who took part in an NIE program during their school days. Results of the telephone survey indicated that participation in NIE and length of participation were significantly related to later frequency of reading. Results also indicated that four of six other activities were also related to high newspaper use: that respondents took current events quizzes, clipped and saved articles, used the newspaper as a source of class discussion, and analyzed news stories. (One table of data is included.) (Author/RS)

A study examined the similarities and differences which exist in the professionalization of public relations in Austria, Norway, and the United States. Subjects, 136 of 188 members of the Public Relations Verband Austria, 150 of 300 members of the Informasjonsforeningen (Norway), and 272 of 500 members of the Public Relations Society of America, completed questionnaires. Differences and similarities were isolated by examining concepts of the ideal job, the actual job, public relations development, and public relations role. Cultural values, educational systems, and history were used to explain the differences and similarities. Results indicated that: (1) practitioners in all three countries evidenced similarities in the autonomy dimension of the ideal job but differences on the prestige dimension; (2) practitioners differed on the autonomy dimension of the actual job; (3) even though it was anticipated that American public relations practitioners would have the strongest public relations development scores, there were strong reasons why Austrian practitioners actually scored higher than those in America; (4) public relations history fails to account (but education can) for Austria having the highest percentage of managers. Findings provide a starting point for identifying which elements of public relations practice should be standardized and which should be customized. The finding of a shared view of autonomy in the ideal job held by all practitioners suggest that public relations has made progress toward developing a professional attitude. (Three tables of data are included.) (RS)

A study examined spatial factors (minority population, segregation, racial differences in the workforce and the educational system, and minority public officials) and organizational factors (ownership and circulation) that may predict newsroom minority employment. Data for this secondary analysis of 172 newspapers were gathered from earlier studies conducted by the American Society of Newspaper Editors (ASNE), the United States census, and other sources. Regression analysis and analysis of variance suggest that the most significant predictors of newsroom minority employment are minority population, newspaper ownership, race of mayor, and ethnicity of regional workforce. (Five tables of data are included; 15 references are attached.) (Author/RS)

Public support for individual and media rights of freedom of expression was examined in this study. Data were analyzed from a national probability sample of 1,508 adults, with items pertaining to freedom of expression formed into two indexes: media rights and individual rights. These indexes were used as dependent variables to test hypotheses based on the demographic variables of sex, age, education, and political orientation. Results indicated that: (1) men supported both rights significantly more than women, with greater disparity for media rights; (2) support for freedom of expression was higher at the left side of the political spectrum than the right; (3) as education increased, support for rights tended to increase, while increasing age seemed to be associated with decreasing support; and (4) three-way interactions between sex, education, and age and between political orientation, education, and age showed relationships to support for expressive rights. (Three tables and three figures of data are included; 26 references are attached.) (Author/RS)

A national survey of 175 public relations managers documented fund-raising encroachment (subordination of public relations functions to fund-raising) at 23% of their charitable organizations, with variation in vulnerability among different types (e.g., the public relations function is managed by fund raising at 50% of the private colleges and universities (N=38) represented in the study, whereas only 14% of the human services organizations (N=50) reported similar encroachment). Small, but significant, correlations were found between encroachment and the extent to which the public relations department has the knowledge and expertise to practice two-way symmetric and asymmetric models of public relations and the communication manager role. Together, knowledge of the four public relations models and two roles accounted for 19% of the explained variance in observed encroachment. Factor analysis yielded scales of high and low potential of the public relations department that may be useful in future encroachment research, whether the encroachment is by fund raising or marketing. (Six tables of data are included; 28 references are attached.) (Author/RS)

Twenty first graders and 20 second graders in Houston, Texas, were examined on skills in segmenting, reading, and spelling 50 words with regular and exceptional spelling patterns. By using the same words for each task, it was possible to assess the interrelationships among these skills on a word by word, child by child basis. A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted on mean difference scores for segmentation-reading, segmentation-spelling, and reading-spelling. Positive differences between measures were observed, except in the segmentation-reading analysis of regular words requiring the deletion of consonant blends and medial sounds. In addition, graphical analyses showed a greater probability of correct reading and spelling given correct segmentation than incorrect segmentation. Results were interpreted to support a computational notion of phonology as a prerequisite to reading and spelling, with a more reflective notion explaining the reciprocal relation between reading and segmentation of complex spelling patterns. (Four tables and two figures of data are included; 21 references and a list of the stimuli for segmentation, reading, and spelling tests are attached.) (Author/RS)

This study was designed to determine whether systematically designed text augmented with compressed speech could increase the number of objectives achieved and reduce the amount of learning time needed for mastery of the objectives. Subjects were 78 students from 5 Florida schools with vocational education programs. Their reading levels ranged from grade levels of 3.1 to 12.9, with the mean score of 8.8. The instructional material used was the unit "Good Work" from the Employability Skills Series, which includes a text module covering the introduction, knowledge objectives, and instructional objectives, together with practice activities and audiotapes corresponding to the text. The tape recordings of the text were made by a professional radio announcer at an average speed of 175 words per minute; a compressed speech tape was created at 262 wpm. Subjects were divided into three groups: the control group (n=28) received the text only, and each of two experimental groups received the text and one of the audiotapes (n=28 for normal speech, n=22 for compressed speech). Subjects worked in a laboratory setting and project monitors timed the use of the tapes and administered a posttest. Statistical results of the study showed systematically designed text to be highly effective; all three groups reached a ceiling effect on the mastery of the objectives. Another finding was that the overall variance in the amount of time used for the lesson was reduced by the use of compressed speech. Successful comprehension in combination with the other findings for efficiency, time savings, and reduced variability, demonstrate that the use of compressed speech tapes to augment systematically designed instruction may be a valuable instructional method when a cost-benefit is determined. Data are displayed in 10 tables. (31 references) (BBM)

This study was designed to ascertain if a relationship exists between supervising teachers' personal attributes and professional backgrounds and the attitudes of their student teachers toward their field experiences. The subjects were 123 elementary and secondary student teachers completing their student teaching experience. Data collection utilized an attitudinal rating scale and a personal background questionnaire. Analysis of the scale revealed four factors of the student teaching/supervising teacher experience that were further analyzed and compared: mentoring, structure, support, and responsibility. Findings revealed that there was a significant difference in attitude mean scores of student teachers with female supervisors compared to student teachers with male supervisors. The data revealed no significant differences in attitude mean scores of student teachers as related to the ages of their supervising teachers. The study also revealed that no significant difference existed between the attutude mean scores of student teachers when comparing their supervising teachers' educational attainment level. However, there was a significant difference when comparing grade level of instruction and the student teachers' perception in the area of mentoring. A Two-Way ANOVA was performed to capture the possible interactions between the sex of the supervising teacher and the grade level of instruction. The study recommended additional research to identify the interactional effects on attitudes between like sexes of the supervising teacher and the student teacher. (28 references) (LL)

A study examined the effect of successful and unsuccessful video models on pre-performance public speaking anxiety of students enrolled in basic communication courses. Two hundred twenty-five students enrolled in the basic communication courses served as participants. Subjects were divided into four conditions according to how the instructions for their first in-class public speaking assignment were given: (1) subjects not confronted with video models; (2) subjects confronted with a successful video model; (3) subjects confronted with an unsuccessful video model; and (4) subjects confronted with both a successful and unsuccessful video model. Results revealed that video modeling as an instructional strategy does not significantly minimize student pre-performance apprehension and that there was no significant difference between the effects of the successful and unsuccessful video models in altering student anxiety. Results also revealed that the introduction of both successful and unsuccessful video models actually produced more anxiety as an outcome of specific prescriptions of appropriate behaviors. Findings suggest that the narrower range of acceptable behavior produced by the video versus the audio models (reported in earlier studies) may result in heightened student concerns about evaluation, performance, and self-related issues. (One table of data is included.) (KEH)

A study examined the relationships between self-disclosure and perceived intercultural effectiveness. Subjects, 129 foreign students from Asia attending a large midwestern university and a large eastern university in the United States, completed two sets of questionnaires. Results from Pearson product-moment correlation, canonical analysis, and stepwise multiple regression analysis showed: (1) positive relationships between intent, honesty, and positiveness of self-disclosure and intercultural effectiveness; and (2) negative relationships between amount and depth of self-disclosure and intercultural effectiveness. Results of one-way analysis of variance on self-disclosure and intercultural effectiveness further indicated the differences among subjects from different nations. Findings suggest that, for Asians, the amount and depth of self-disclosure were the least important elements in forming an intimate relationship. (Three tables of data are included; 58 references are attached.) (Author/RS)

A study examined the way teachers have been portrayed in nine films spanning a 50-year time period. Thirty-seven teachers attending a graduate education course completed a 27-item questionnaire to rate each of nine films. Results indicated that although the teachers portrayed in the films were distinctly different from each other, overall, the teachers were portrayed as earnest and dedicated, but poorly trained, inept, rebellious, and dull. Findings suggest that viewers would neither emulate these teachers nor be inspired by them to become teachers. (RS)

An intervention study was designed to implement and evaluate an instructional program combining the writing process and computers to improve the writing quantity and quality and investigate the apprehensions of middle level students. Subjects, 75 sixth-grade students, were chosen from a relatively small rural school system. The intervention took place over approximately 28 weeks within 2 of the intact 6th-grade classrooms. The 2 experimental groups were involved in a newspaper writing program 2 days per week, 2 hours each day. A control group receiving traditional classroom writing experiences was also employed. Pretest analyses of variance determined that there were no significant differences between the groups on any of the measures used prior to the intervention. Posttest analyses of variance supported the hypotheses that the use of the writing process approach is superior to traditional methods of teaching writing and that the use of the computer enhances the process. (One figure and 3 tables of data are included and 19 references are attached.) (MG)

Beliefs about the causes of success and failure in academic achievement were compared for students in the United States and Israel. The following 11 attributions were placed randomly in a questionnaire format: (1) mood; (2) skill; (3) knowledge; (4) chance; (5) effort; (6) competence; (7) help; (8) ability; (9) task; (10) bias; and (11) luck. Each was followed by a random ordering of five 7-point scales on the following dimensions: external-internal; global-specific (to a particular situation); uncontrollable-controllable; stable-unstable; and predictable-unpredictable. Subjects were asked to rate the attributions. The United States sample included 50 undergraduate education students, 50 graduate education students, 50 undergraduates from an introductory psychology course, and 50 adults who had never attended a college or university. The Israeli sample included 53 undergraduate education students, 80 graduate education students, 56 undergraduate psychology students, and 50 adults without a college background. Three-way factor analyses of variance were used for group, sex, and attributions. Israelis were more internal than were subjects from the United States for task difficulty and luck, and were less predictable on task difficulty, less controllable for competence, but more controllable for luck. In all four groups, attributions of skill, knowledge, and luck revealed the largest differences between the two groups. Results are discussed in terms of the cultural views and experiences of the two populations. The rating scale used is included. (SLD)