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This article focuses on functions of oncogenes in humans. Proto-oncogenes regulate the normal processes of the cell including cell proliferation, differentiation, adhesion, cell cycle control and apoptosis. Not unexpectedly, therefore, any mutations in these important genes will lead to abnormal expression resulting in malignant transformation. A second group of proto-oncogenes are the growth factor receptors or their functional homologues that link signals from growth factors to the intracellular signalling pathways. These genes, when mutated, make up a large proportion of all known oncogenes.

The article offers information on Ophiovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species citrus psorosis virus and ranunculus white mottle virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Vitivirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species grapevine virus A and heracleum latent virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Tymovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species turnip yellow mosaic virus and andean potato latent virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Umbravirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species carrot mottle virus and carrot mottle mimic virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Tobravirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species tobacco rattle virus and pea early-browning virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Trichovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species apple chlorotic leaf spot virus and potato virus T. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Tenuivirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species rice stripe virus and echinochloa hoja blanca virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Tobamovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species tobacco mosaic virus and cucumber green mottle mosaic virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, the diseases it can cause and its vector constructs.

The article offers information on Sobemovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species blueberry shoestring virus and cocksfoot mottle virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Pecluvirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species peanut clump virus and Indian peanut clump virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Potexvirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species alternanthera mosaic virus and asparagus virus 3. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Pomovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species potato mop-top virus and beet soil-borne virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on P4-like satellite viruses. The viruses' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species satellite phage P4 and retrophage R73. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences and proteins.

The article offers information on Nanovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species subterranean clover stint virus and faba bean necrotic yellows virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Furovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species soil-borne wheat mosaic virus and oat golden stripe virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Marafivirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species maize rayado fino virus and the oat blue dwarf virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Idaeovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. This article also offers information on the virus' genus member, raspberry bushy dwarf virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Hordeivirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species barley stripe mosaic virus and lychnis ringspot virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Hepatitis E virus-like viruses. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. This article also offers information on its genus member, hepatitis-E virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Foveavirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species apple stem pitting virus and grapevine rupestris stem pitting-associated virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Deltavirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. This article also presents information on the virus' genus member, hepatitis delta virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on cricket paralysis virus-like viruses. The viruses' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Their genus members are also listed, which include the species acute bee paralysis virus and black queen cell virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the viruses' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases they can cause.

The article offers information on Carlavirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species Carnation latent virus and American hop latent virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

An encyclopedia entry for the early genes of human papillomaviruses is presented. The human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 is the most frequently found HPV genotype in cervical cancers. HPV 16 has a number of early genes that are transcribed from the same DNA strand. Three early proteins of HPV 16 are involved in the induction of malignant transformation of the infected cells, these are E6, E7 and E5.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a versatile, widely used method for the production of a very large number of copies of a specific DNA molecule (1,2). For some applications, it is advantageous to subclone the PCR product into a plasmid vector for subsequent replication in bacteria (3-6). Subcloning the PCR product into a plasmid vector has several advantages: The amplified fragment can be sequenced with greater reliability, only one allele is sequenced per clone, and the vector containing the PCR product may be used for other molecular biological experiments, e.g., in vitro transcription, transfection, and further amplification in bacteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on Varicosavirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species lettuce big-vein virus and tobacco stunt virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' proteins, biology and the diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on Ourmiavirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. Its genus members are also listed, which include the species ourmia melon virus and epirus cherry virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins, biology and the types of diseases it can cause.

The article offers information on His1-like viruses. The viruses' genome and replication strategy is described. Their genus members are also listed, which include the species His1 virus and His2 virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' nucleotide sequences, proteins and biology.

The article offers information on Rhizidiovirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. This article also offers information on the virus' genus member, rhizidiomyces virus. In addition, several charts are presented which describes the virus' proteins, biology and the disease it can cause.

The article offers information on Guttavirus. The virus' genome and replication strategy is described. A chronological list of the virus' history of discovery and research is presented as well. This article also offers information on the virus' genus member, sulfolobus virus. In addition, several charts are presented which lists the virus' proteins.

A definition of the term "oncogenes" is presented. It refers to mutated genes that are the cause of cancer. The normal gene is termed the proto-oncogene. These genes usually play a role in the regulation of cell growth or survival or the intermediate steps in those processes.

A definition of the term "early virus genes" is presented. It refers to the genes whose expression occurs before the onset of replication of the viral genome. Early genes or proteins are required for replication of the virus nucleic acid. The difference between early proteins and structural proteins is discussed.