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The working papers contained in this volume include the following: "Intercultural Communication and the Analysis of Conversation" (Nessa Wolfson); "Methods of Inquiry into Cultural Expression in Speech Behavior" (Ruth Benander); "'I Really Like Your Lifestyle': ESL Learners Learning How to Compliment" (Kristine Billmyer); "'Your Eye is Sparkling': Formulaic Expressions and Routines in Turkish" (Seran Dogancay); "Misunderstood Efforts and Missed Opportunities: An Examination of EFL in Japan" (Yoshiko Okushi); and "Discourse Marking and Elaboration and the Comprehensibility of Second Language Speakers" (Jessica Williams). (MSE)

A large and growing number of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in the US and around the world have the potential to develop bilingualism and biliteracy if supported in their immediate environment. At the forefront in focusing exclusively on biliteracy development in early childhood across a variety of languages, this book provides both findings from empirical research with young bilinguals in home and school contexts and practical applications of these findings. Each chapter is structured in a similar format to offer parallel descriptions of the research, including a brief review of related empirical studies, an overview of the methods for data collection and analysis, a description of the main findings, and specific pedagogical implications to support educators' efforts to construct meaningful, challenging, and dynamic literacy and language learning communities where one or more languages are used for communicating and learning. Pushing the field forward, this book is a valuable resource for helping literacy educators understand and respond to critical issues related to the development of young children's literate competencies in two languages in home and school contexts. This book begins with an introduction by Mileidis Gort and Eurydice Bouchereau Bauer and contains three parts. Part I, Emergence of Biliteracy: The Preschool Years, contains: (2) Supporting the Early Development of Biliteracy: The Role of Parents and Caregivers (Eurydice Bouchereau Bauer and Dumisile Mkhize); (3) Literacy Practices and Language Use among Latino Emergent Bilingual Children in Preschool Contexts (Lucinda Soltero-Gonzalez and Iliana Reyes); and (4) Learning How to Write in English and Chinese: Young Bilingual Kindergarten and First Grade Children Explore the Similarities and Differences between Writing Systems (David Yaden, Jr. and Tina Tsai). Part II, Biliteracy Development in Early Elementary School, contains: (5) Evaluation and Revision Processes of Young Bilinguals in a Dual Language Program (Mileidis Gort); (6) Zehra's Story: Becoming Biliterate in Turkish and English (Zeynep Camlibel and Georgia Garcia); (7) Traveling on the Biliteracy Highway: Framing Biliteracy from Students' Writings (Maria Franquiz); (8) The Evolution of Biliterate Writing Development through Simultaneous Bilingual Literacy Instruction (Wendy Sparrow, Sandra Butvilofsky and Kathy Escamilla). Part III, Reflections and Future Directions, contains: (9) Reflections and Directions for Biliteracy Research (Eurydice Bouchereau Bauer and Mileidis Gort). A glossary is also included.

This edited volume includes the following chapters: "The Matrix Language Frame Model: Development and Responses" (Carol Myers-Scotton); "Language Alternation: The Third Kind of Codeswitching Mechanism" (Rodolfo Jacobson); "Contrastive Sociolinguistics: Borrowed and Codeswitched Past Participles in Romance-Germanic Language Contact" (Jeanine Treffers-Daller); "Functional Categories and Codeswitching in Japanese/English" (Shoji Azuma); "Linguostatistic Study of Bulgarian in Ukraine" (Ol'ga S. Parfenova); "The Role of Semantic Specificity in Insertional Codeswitching: Evidence from Dutch-Turkish" (Ad Backus); "Oral and Written Assyrian-English Codeswitching" (Erica McClure); "Written Codeswitching: Powerful Bilingual Images" (Cecilia Montes-Alcala); "Talking in Johannesburg: The Negotiation of Identity in Conversation" (Robert K. Herbert); "Codeswitching in the Language of Immigrants: The Case of Franbreu" (Miriam Ben-Rafael); and "Towards a New Understanding of Codeswitching in the Foreign Language Classroom" (Diana-Lee Simon). A subject reference is also included. (Contains 294 references.) (KFT)

This book deals with the language of 14 non-Russian republics, examining how their speakers struggle to maintain those languages as an integral part of their cultures. There are 19 chapters in five parts. After (1) "On Language," part 1, "The Western Borderlands," includes: (2) "Ukraine: The Little Russians"; (3) "Belarus: The White Russians"; and (4) "Moldova: The Soviet Union's Romance Language." Part 2, "The Baltic States," includes: (5) "Estonia: A Touch of Scandinavia"; (6) "Latvia: Between Germany and Russia"; and (7) "Lithuania: The Spinning Wheel." Part 3, "The Caucasus," includes: (8) "Azerbaijan: Between Turkey and Iran"; (9) "Armenia: Ancient People, Ancient Language"; and (10) "Georgia: The Birthplace to Rustaveli and Stalin." Part 4, "Central Asia," includes: (11)"Uzbekistan: The Cultural Leaders of Central Asia?"; (12) "Kazakhstan: The Nomadic Herders"; (13) "Kyrgyzstan: The Forty Tribes"; (14) "Turkmenistan: 'I am Turk'"; and (15) "Tajikistan: The Persian-Speaking People of Central Asia." Part 5, "Other Nationalities," includes: (16) "The Crimean Tatars: A People Charged with Collective Treason"; (17) "The Volga Tatars: The Cultural Leaders of Russia's Moslems"; (18) "The Jews: Nationality without a Republic"; and (19) "Reflections." Statistical charts and alphabets are appended. (Contains approximately 190 bibliographic references.) (SM)

Immigrant minority groups and immigrant minority languages in Europe are viewed from three perspectives (demographic, sociolinguistic, and educational) through case studies. The first part, using a demographic approach, includes research on immigrant minority groups in population statistics of both European Union and English-dominant countries (Australia, Canada, United States, South Africa) with substantial immigrant populations. The second part, using a sociolinguistic approach, examines the vitality of immigrant minority languages. Research methods are first explained, and case studies are presented for Turkish, Arabic, Berber, Papiamentu, English, Sranan/Surinamese, Chinese, Malay, Spanish, Hindi, and Romansh. The third part looks at case studies on the status of minority languages in education in European Union countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands, and Sweden). Appended materials include a home language survey questionnaire and instructions, a questionnaire on immigrant minority language instruction in compulsory education, and the text of a directive of the Council of the European Communities on the schooling of children of migrant workers. Contains 88 references. (MSE)

This collection of 22 papers offers a detailed record of the development of the field and its modern extension. Part 1, "The Dutch Contribution: 'Little Arrows'," includes: (1) "Informant Classification of Dialects" (W.G. Rensink); (2) "Dialects" (Jo C. Daan); and (3) "The Netherlands-German National Border as a Subjective Dialect Boundary" (Ludger Kremer). Part 2, "The Japanese Controversy: 'Subjective' and 'Objective'," includes: (4) "Consciousness of Dialect Boundaries" (Takesi Sibata); (5) "Consciousness of Linguistic Boundaries and Actual Linguistic Boundaries" (Kikuo Nomoto); (6) "Dialect Consciousness and Dialect Divisions: Examples in the Nagano-Gifu Boundary Region" (Yoshio Mase); (7) "On Dialect Consciousness: Dialect Characteristics Given by Speakers" (Yoshio Mase); (8) "The Discussion Surrounding the Subjective Boundaries of Dialects" (Willem A. Grootaers); (9) "On the Value of Subjective Dialect Boundaries" (Antonius A. Weijnen); and (10) "Dialects and the Subjective Judgments of Speakers: Remarks on Controversial Methods" (A.C.M. Goeman). Part 3, "Images, Perceptions and Attitudes," includes: (11) "Classification of Dialects by Image: English and Japanese" (Fumio Inoue); (12) "Subjective Dialect Division in Great Britain" (Fumio Inoue); (13) "Geographical Perceptions of Japanese Dialect Regions" (Daniel Long); (14) "Mapping Nonlinguists' Evaluations of Japanese Language Variation" (Daniel Long); (15) "The Perception of Post-Unification German Regional Speech" (Jennifer Dailey-O-Cain); (16) "Variation and the Norm: Parisian Perceptions of Regional French" (Lawrence Kuiper); (17) "The Perception of Turkish Dialects" (Mahide Demirci and Brian Kleiner); (18) "Regional Variation in Subjective Dialect Divisions in the United States" (Donald M. Lance); (19) "A View from the West: Perceptions of U.S. Dialects by Oregon Residents" (Laura C. Hartley); (20) "'Welshness' and 'Englishness' as Attitudinal Dimensions of English Language Varieties in Wales" (Nikolas Coupland, Angie Williams, and Peter Garrett); (21) "Dialect Recognition" (Angie Williams, Peter Garrett, and Nikolas Coupland); and (22) "A Language Attitude Approach to the Perception of Regional Variety" (Dennis R. Preston). (Contains approximately 350 references.) (SM)

Essays in second language acquisition include: "The State of the Art in Second Language Acquisition Research" (Josine Lalleman); "Crosslinguistic Influence with Special Reference to the Acquisition of Grammar" (Michael Sharwood Smith); "Second Language Acquisition by Adult Immigrants: A Multiple Case Study of Turkish and Moroccan Learners of Dutch" (Guus Extra, Roeland van Hout); "Some Experimental Tasks in the Study of Word Recognition" (Cor J. Koster); "Strategies" (Nanda Poulisse); "Universal Grammar in Second Language Acquisition" (Vivian J. Cook); "Are There Principles of Universal Grammar That Do Not Apply to Second Language Acquisition?" (Paul van Buren); "Parameters in Non-Native Language Acquisition" (Bonnie D. Schwartz); "Parameter Setting and the Acquisition of Wh-Questions in L2 French" (Aafke Hulk); "A New Research Programme for the L2 Acquisition of Phonology" (Martha Young-Scholten); "Second Language Phonology" (Allan R. James); "Speech Perception and L2 Phonological Acquisition" (Henning Wode); "Lexicon and Grammar in Second Language Learning" (Paul Bogaards); "The Lexicon in Second Language Acquisition" (Rene Appel); and "Input and Instruction in Second Language Acquisition" (Peter Jordens). (MSE)

Papers from a 1990 Dutch colloquium on immigrant language varieties in Europe are presented in four categories: (1) use of immigrant language varieties in Europe; (2) first language acquisition in a second language context; (3) code-switching; and (4) language maintenance and loss. Papers include: "Sweden Finnish" (Jarmo Lainio); "South Asian Languages in Britain" (Safder Alladina); "A Bilingual Perspective on Turkish and Moroccan Children and Adults in the Netherlands" (Guus Extra, Ludo Verhoeven); "Croatian or Serbian as a Diaspora Language in Western Europe" (Andrina Pavlinic); "Turkish Language Development in Germany" (Carol Pfaff); "Turkish Language Development in the Netherlands" (Anneli Schaufeli); "Summative Assessment of Ethnic Group Language Proficiency" (Jeroen Aarssen, Jan Jaap de Ruiter, Ludo Verhoeven); "Parental Attitudes towards Child Bilingualism in the Nordic Countries" (Sirkku Latomaa); "Code-Copying in Immigrant Turkish" (Lars Johanson); "Turkish-Dutch Code-Switching and the Frame-Process Model" (Ad Backus); "Code-switching and Borrowing in an Arabic-Dutch Context" (Jacomine Nortier); "Finns and Americans in Sweden: Patterns of Linguistic Incorporation from Swedish" (Paula Andersson); "Immigrant Minority Languages and Education in Sweden" (Sally Boyd); "Romani at the Crossroads" (Donald Kenrick); "Methodological Issues in Language Shift Research" (Koen Jaspaert, Sjaak Kroon); and "Lexical Aspects of Language Attrition and Shift" (Kees de Bot, Bert Weltens). (MSE)

Seven papers on various topics in language research are presented, including: "What Makes the Japanese Inscrutable?: A Linguistic Perspective" (Julie Bruch); "A New Look at Old English Metrics" (Alison K. Huettner); "A Class of Indefinites in Vietnamese" (Laura A. Michaelis); "Cohesion and the Yiddish Consecutive Order" (Kenneth L. Miner); "Syllable Structure and Interlanguage Phonology" (Tim Riney); "Socially Deictic Use of a Body-Part Term in Turkish" (Mubeccel Taneri); and "Chinese Passives: Transformational or Lexical" (Jiuwu Zhang, Xiaohong Wen). An index of the cumulative contents of volumes 1-14 of the Working Papers is also included. (MSE)

Cultural variations exist in the proportion of women who initiate and continue breastfeeding, and for some cultural groups, migration to a new country is associated with a reduction in both initiation and duration of breastfeeding. This chapter describes the initial infant feeding attitudes and practices of women born in Vietnam, Turkey and Australia who gave birth in Australia. One hundred Turkish-born, 100 Vietnamese-born and 100 Australian-born women who gave birth in a large, tertiary referral hospital in Melbourne, Australia, were interviewed in hospital prior to discharge. Almost all Turkish women initiated breastfeeding (98 percent) compared with 84 percent of Australian women. Vietnamese women had the lowest rate of breastfeeding initiation (75 percent). They also perceived their partners to be more negative about breastfeeding and did not value the health benefits of colostrum to the same extent as women born in Turkey and Australia. Despite the `Baby Friendly΄ status of the hospital where the study was conducted, 40 percent of Vietnamese women gave their baby formula in hospital. The hospital environment is a key area where care providers can make a difference to breastfeeding initiation. Given the widely known benefits of breastfeeding, further research should explore interventions that may increase the proportion of Vietnamese women who breastfeed following migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we present a hybrid named entity recognizer for Turkish, which is based on a previously proposed rule based recognizer. Since rule based systems for speci¯c domains require their knowledge sources to be manually revised when ported to other domains, we turn the rule based recognizer into a hybrid one so that it learns from annotated data and improves its knowledge sources accordingly. Both the hybrid recognizer and its predecessor are evaluated on the same corpora and the hybrid recognizer achieves comparably better results. The current study is signi¯cant since it presents the¯rst hybrid {manually engineered and learning{ named entity recognizer for Turkish texts [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose a set of language resources for building Turkish language processing applications. Specifically, we present a finite-state implementation of a morphological parser, an averaged perceptron-based morphological disambiguator, and compilation of a web corpus. Turkish is an agglutinative language with a highly productive inflectional and derivational morphology. We present an implementation of a morphological parser based on two-level morphology. This parser is one of the most complete parsers for Turkish and it runs independent of any other external system such as PC-KIMMO in contrast to existing parsers. Due to complex phonology and morphology of Turkish, parsing introduces some ambiguous parses. We developed a morphological disambiguator with accuracy of about 98% using averaged perceptron algorithm. We also present our efforts to build a Turkish web corpus of about 423 million words. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One reason for believing that the mixing of languages was increasing in the early modern period comes from the vehemence of the reaction against such mixing. Scholarly discussions of the movements for linguistic purity of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are relatively common. Some of these movements were nationalist, like the Greek and the German crusades against foreign words (below, p. 169). Others were essentially literary, efforts by poets such as Stéphane Mallarmé ‘to purify the dialect of the tribe’ as he put it (donner un sens plus pur au mots de la tribu). Mallarmé dreamed of an ideal world described in an ideal language. Although they have attracted much less scholarly attention, movements of linguistic purification in early modern Europe were neither uncommon nor unimportant. They were the negative side of the standardization and codification of language described in chapter 4. Attempts to make the vernaculars more uniform and more dignified entailed rejecting many words and certain forms of syntax and pronunciation. At least three different kinds of purity were advocated. Language had to be morally pure, as opposed to ‘talking dirty’: the Dictionary of the French Academy excluded what the preface called ‘swearwords or those which offend modesty’ (termes d'emportement ou qui blessent la pudeur). Language also had to be socially pure, in other words to follow the usage of the upper classes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This book has presented a few central themes in the story of European languages from the late-fifteenth to the late-eighteenth century. The choice of the French Revolution as the moment to end the story implies that in language, as in government, an old regime was replaced by a new one after 1789. Roughly speaking, this view is correct. From 1789 onwards, governments in Europe and elsewhere have become increasingly concerned with the everyday language of ordinary people. The point is that language both expresses and helps to create national communities. We might say that language was ‘nationalized’ at this time, or that it became an instrument of the ‘cult of the nation’. From this time onward, it becomes appropriate to speak of conscious ‘language policies’. To be more precise, though, this view requires a few qualifications. As so often in history, it is more illuminating to view change in relative terms than in absolute ones, to speak of more or less rather than of presence or absence. Cultural regimes are not transformed overnight, or even in a decade. Changes in the linguistic regime and the idea of the nation were becoming visible before the Revolution and continuities remained apparent long after that date. This is the reason for the following epilogue. It does not aspire to be a general survey of European languages in the last two centuries. It is simply intended to offer a few explicit comparisons and contrasts between European languages and their communities before and after 1789. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 3 referred to ‘winners’ and ‘losers’ in the competition. However, in the history of language, as in the case of history in general, this contrast should not be made too sharp. The losers sometimes influence the winners to some extent, producing some kind of mixture, whether this is conscious or unconscious, pragmatic (as in the case of a lingua franca) or playful, as in the case of macaronic literature. This process of linguistic exchange, as well as expressing the increasing cultural unification of Europe, contributed to its ‘Europeanization’, or at least offered some compensation for the gradual decline of communication in Latin. The participation of the elites of different European countries in a common culture that extended from music to warfare was marked by the creation of what the nineteenth-century Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi called ‘europeisms’ (europeismi). All the same, historians of Europe have so far had little to say about this aspect of cultural encounters, preferring to leave this topic to their colleagues the linguists. Inspired by some recent work on ‘language encounters’ in North America in particular, I have tried in what follows to extend the approach to Europe. When there are contacts between speech communities, the influences flow in both directions and the result is cultural ‘hybridization’ or ‘transculturation’. In the case of language, the process of hybridization produces pidgins, creoles and other mixed languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Towards the end of his reign Selīm I had been preparing for a new offensive, but no one could be sure where the blow might fall. Now, in September 1520, the great sultan was dead. As the news became known in Christendom, men felt that a dark shadow had been banished, an imminent peril suddenly dispelled. Sulaimān, the only son of Selīm, was said to be ill-versed in affairs and of a quiet nature, a prince, therefore, who would be little inclined to war. Seldom has prediction been more rash or doomed to swifter disillusionment. In 1521 Sulaimān marched against Hungary. The campaign had been organised with meticulous care: the beglerbeg of Rumeli moved towards Sabacz, the sultan following with most of his household regiments; the grand vizier Pīrī Pasha, with a strong contingent of janissaries and ample provision of siege guns, made for the main objective, Belgrade, which Mehemmed II had tried but failed to capture in 1456. At the same time the Akinjis rode out in two columns, the one to effect a diversion against Transylvania, the other to devastate the lands between the Sava and the Drava. The fall of Sabacz and Semlin severed the routes leading to the north and west of Belgrade, so that Sulaimān was now free to assail the great fortress. Guns bombarded the walls from an island in the Danube, a fierce assault drove the garrison into the citadel, an Ottoman flotilla, sailing upstream, cut off all relief by water. The end came when dissension broke out between the Hungarians and their Serbian mercenaries, the former wishing to prolong, the latter to abandon the defence. Belgrade surrendered on 29 August 1521. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been noted that British policy makers thought that the Chinese should (Chapter 14) and could (Chapter 15) buy more British manufactures. This chapter shows that their perceptions of the pertinent statistics led them to believe that the Chinese could do so while at least maintaining the existing level of the purchase of opium from India. It attempts to evaluate further aspects of free-trade imperialism and other pertinent theories, exploring still further the origins of the Arrow War. I. A debt-ridden India It is often said that India was a tremendous asset to the British Empire. In fact, for the period under review India was a heavy liability. One problem was that India, administered by the British East India Company, had a net revenue which often fell short of expenses. For example, the company was in the red for four out of the seven years immediately before the Arrow War began in earnest (see Table 16.1, column 2). Even during the three years when the company had a surplus (see Table 16.1, column 1), it was far less than the annual deficit in the other years. Normally, loans are raised only when revenues are insufficient to meet expenditures. But Table 16.1, column 3, shows that whether the company was in the black or the red, it continued to borrow money both in England and in India. Why? The answer is that these loans were related to the extension of British rule over more and more of the Indian subcontinent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]