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Controlled studies by groups throughout the world have proven the efficacy of virtual reality (VR) exposure for “mental rehabilitation,” including treatment of Specific Phobias (SP), Social Phobia (SoP), and Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia (PDA). In addition, many are now showing the power of adding VR to protocols to treat individuals with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) as well as to prevent PTSD by “inoculating” individuals against stressful situations they may encounter (Stress Inoculation Training). Others have shown how VR can be added to protocols for those needing “physical rehabilitation” to improve patient compliance and outcomes. In addition, studies have shown the addition of physiological monitoring and feedback to the VR protocol can have added benefit, both in terms of short term effectiveness and in terms of lowering recidivism in the long term. VR allows stimuli to be presented in a systematic, controlled fashion, and physiology provides objective evidence of when the stimuli are eliciting appropriate responses in the patient or trainee. This enables treatment and training to be individualized, focusing in on those specific parts of the experience which cause the individual the most difficulty. By combining such measures as subjective ratings, physiological data, personality type, and self-report questionnaire scores, with expert clinical observations; it is possible to further refine and improve clinical and research-based protocols. Decades after the first simulators were used to train fighter pilots, advanced technologies and simulations are now impacting military medicine. This paper highlights illustrative studies to introduce the reader to this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies using VR exposure therapy for PTSD have been conducted to date, with promising results. The need for better accuracy of the patient's arousal assessment requires aggregation of various measures of arousal, including physiological ones, which may increase the mental burden on the therapist. Assessment of the patient's arousal, automated by the computer, may therefore be useful. As the therapist also needs to manipulate user interface to introduce appropriate trigger stimuli in the virtual environment, automated adaptation of VR scenarios in response to the patient's level of arousal may alleviate this task. This paper describes the architecture of the software that performs appropriate automation according to the rules of graded exposure therapy, and discusses issues for successful implementation of such software. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 69 of the book "Advanced Therapy in Hypertension and Vascular Disease" is presented. It discusses sexual dysfunction in patients with hypertension. It explains the sexual responses of men and women. It also describes the pathophysiology of several sexual dysfunction, such as erectile dysfunction. Information is also given on considerations for the evaluation of sexual dysfunction in hypertensive patients. It relates the effects of specific classes of antihypertensive agents.

A definition of the term "chemokines" is presented. It refers to the family of small cytokines with chemotactic properties which signal through seven transmembrane receptors coupled to G1 proteins. A discussion of the physiologic functions of chemokines is provided. Synonyms for the term are given.

Chapter 1.3 of the book "Vitamin & Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition" is presented. It notes that nutrient balance calculations typically involve assessing input and output and establishing requirement at the point of equilibrium while optimal intake is a relatively new approach to deriving nutrient requirements.

Chapter four of the book "Health, Science & Ordinary Language" is presented. It explores the intimate relation between the pathological concepts and the functioning of the total human being. K. W. M. Fulford and Lennart Nordentfelt suggested a Reverse Theory of health and illness that illness comes before the diagnosis of a disease. According to Fulford, illness presents dysfunction in the body, while Nordentfelt considers illness as a disease or injury which persons suffer.

Chapter two of the book "Health, Science & Ordinary Language" is presented. It offers an evaluation of the work of Christopher Boorse and uses the theories in his work "A Rebuttal on Health" as basis of the study. The biostatistical theory differentiates normal from pathological state of a person. Normal refers to the natural design of the species while pathological refers to the disruption of the function of any part of the natural design of the species.

A definition of the term "lats in cell-cycle regulation and tumorigenesis" is presented. This term refers to lats, or large tumor suppressor genes. The lats family of genes were discovered from work in the Drosophila melanogaster fruit fly model system. Humans were found to have two homologs of the fly gene, which are capable of rescuing developmental defects and tumor phenotypes caused by lats mutilation when expressed in the fly.

An encyclopedia entry for the term "stress" is presented. It refers to any natural or experimentally contrived circumstance that poses an actual or perceived threat to an animal's well being. There are a number of preclinical models that have been developed to study stress such as restraint and heat or cold. In humans, chronic and repeated stress has been shown to impair immune function.

The article presents an encyclopedia entry for "apoptosis." An overview of the four development phases of apoptosis is provided. There are a number of physiologic and pharmacologic stimuli that can induce the process of apoptosis. Numerous drugs have been found to induce apoptosis in experimental conditions or as side effects.

An encyclopedia entry for "action potential" is presented. It offers clinical information on action potential in relation to epilepsy. Action potentials and synaptic potentials are said to be the basic chemo-electrical signals regulated by ion channels within a biologic membrane. It is noted that the intrinsic mechanisms of action potential are relevant to the basic science of epileptology.

An encyclopedia entry for "circadian rhythms" is presented. They refer to a biologic pacemaker which regulates physiologic fluctuation based upon a near 24-hour time period. They are found in all organisms, with the most potential stimulus being light. The suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus of the brain serves as the master circadian rhythm clock which regulates human behaviors.

An encyclopedia entry for "centrencephalic seizures" is presented. Centrencephalic refers to anatomic involving the central encephalon. Some types of seizures were attributed to discharges in the deeper structures but this was not proven. Examples of this type of seizure are the generalized epilepsies. The physiologic term"centrencephalic" has been replaced by the "thalamo-cortical" theory of connections which serve to emphasize pathologic cortical hyperexcitability as the basic mechanism for epileptogenesis.

This entry provides the definition of the term "Tachypnea." The term refers to the increased number of breaths per minute.

An encyclopedia entry for the term "stress" is presented. It refers to the sum of the biological reactions to any adverse stimulus, physical, mental, or emotional, internal or external, that tends to disturb the organism's homeostasis.

An encyclopedia entry for responder cell frequency is presented. It states that in limiting dilution analysis, the frequency of a specific cell type is estimated based on its functional response to specific stimulation.

The article presents the meaning of the acronym PEF. PEF is also known as peak expiratory flow. It refers to the measurement of the rate of exhalation of air.

A definition of the term "Lytic Unit" is presented. It refers to a value assigned to a quantity of effector cells needed to kill a certain percentage of a predetermined number of target cells.

A definition of the term "hypovolemia" is presented. It is the inadequate intake of fluids due to the elevated demand, loss of fluid or both. The severe forms result in decreased ventricular filling with hypovolemic shock.

A definition for FEV1 is presented. It refers to the forced expiratory volume in the first second of exhalation. It is linked with asthma.

A definition of the term "orexins" is presented. The term refers to orexin A and orexin B, or hypocretins, which are two hypothalamic neuropeptides derived from the same precursor by proteolytic processing. Orexin A and orexin B stimulate food consumption when injected into the cerebral ventricles of rats.

A definition of the term "potassium homeostasis" is presented. It refers to the maintaining and regulating of a relatively stable and mostly internal potassium balance. In general, it refers to the maintenance of potassium balance in any compartment such as in the blood.

A reference entry for the term "craving" is presented. The World Health Organization defines this term as the desire to experience the effects of a previously experience pscyhoactive substance. However, there is debate on whether this term describes a physiological, subjective or behavioral state.

The article provides information on the criteria for substance dependence which were presented at the Tenth Revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. The first criterion is a strong desire to take the substance. Another symptom is having a physiological withdrawal state when substance use has ceased. The last criterion is persisting with substance use despite clear evidence of harmful consequences.

An encyclopedia entry for respiration rate is presented. Respiration rate is defined as the amount of oxygen consumption by a tissue or organ per unit time. It is also known as O2 consumption rate or O2 uptake rate.

A definition of the term "normoxic" is presented. It refers to a state of having a physiologically adequate supply of oxygen. It is derived from the term normoxia.

A definition of the term "normoxia" is presented. It refers to the physiological oxygen partial pressure distribution in a defined tissue, allowing unrestricted function and activity of cells making up the tissue or organ. A derivative of this term is normoxic, which refers to a physiologically adequate supply of oxygen.