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This four-part book is a compendium of current dietary information and is designed primarily as a reference tool for anyone interested in the field of nutrition. The book's first three parts each contain papers generated from nutrition-related research. Part 1, "Dietary Directions in the 1980s," begins by discussing efforts of major governmental groups to develop a national nutritional policy. Papers on nutritive values, energy requirements, vitamins, minerals and elements, salts, fibers, and sweeteners are also included. Part 2, "Nutrition from Conception through Adolescence," contains papers on the topics of pregnancy and lactation, infancy, immunology, childhood, and adolescence. "Adulthood into the Golden Years," the third section, has papers about athletic needs, cancer, cardiovascular system, dental caries, diabetes, medical interactions, mental health, and geriatric needs. Part 4 lists resources for further information, including: (1) libraries specializing in agriculture, food, and nutrition volumes; (2) food and nutrition related associations in the United States; (3) colleges and universities offering accredited courses in agriculture, food, and nutrition; (4) grant support programs in food science, agriculture, and nutrition; (5) magazines covering food and nutrition; (6) publishing opportunities in food and nutrition; and (7) book publishers of food and nutrition. (CJ)

In this paper we focus on the problems of high latency and low throughput arising from the periodic operation of MAC protocols for wireless sensor networks. In order to meet both design criteria we propose an energy-efficient, low-delay, fast-periodic MAC algorithm based on the IEEE 802.15.4 physical layer. Our proposal relies on the short periodic communication operation of the nodes comprising the WSN. This is achieved by decreasing the actions that a node needs to perform at the beginning of every communication period and by incorporating a variable radio-on operation. Moreover, the algorithm introduces differences in nodes' scheduling to further reduce delay. The proposed MAC is evaluated and compared to S-MAC and T-MAC through extensive simulations, showing a significant improvement in terms of low energy consumption and average MAC delay [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fact that sensor networks are deployed in wide dynamically changing environment and usually left unattended, calls for nomadic, diverse and autonomic behavior. The nature of security threats in such networks as well as the nature of the network itself raise additional security challenges, so new mechanisms and architectures must be designed to protect them. In an autonomic communication context these mechanisms must be based on self-healing, self-configuration and self-optimization in order to enforce high-level security policies. In this work we discuss the research challenges posed by sensor network security as they apply to the autonomic communication setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple Classifier systems have been developed in order to improve classification accuracy using methodologies for effective classifier combination. Classical approaches use heuristics, statistical tests, or a meta-learning level in order to find out the optimal combination function. We study this problem from a Reinforcement Learning perspective. In our modeling, an agent tries to learn the best policy for selecting classifiers by exploring a state space and considering a future cumulative reward from the environment. We evaluate our approach by comparing with state-of-the-art combination methods and obtain very promising results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a biophysical model of saccade initiation based on competitive integration of planned and reactive cortical saccade decision signals in the intermediate layer of the superior colliculus. In the model, the variable slopes of the climbing activities of the input cortical decision signals are produced from variability in the conductances of Na+, K+, Ca2+ activated K+, NMDA and GABA currents. These cortical decision signals are integrated in the activities of buildup neurons in the intermediate layer of the superior colliculus, whose activities grow nonlinearly towards a preset criterion level. When the level is crossed, a movement is initiated. The resultant model reproduces the unimodal distributions of saccade reaction times (SRTs) for correct antisaccades and erroneous prosaccades as well as the variability of SRTs (ranging from 80ms to 600ms) and the overall 25% of erroneous prosaccade responses in a large sample of 2006 young men performing an antisaccade task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the innovations that the usage of Internet has introduced is distance learning. Along with distance learning came the requirement for distance certification. While there are organizations that support the certification process, the provided support in Greece is relatively limited inflexible. In this paper we describe the first to our best knowledge, system that automates the certification process. The proposed system takes into account various learning parameters and makes use of the feedback of the process, along with the help of the data mining on the certification results. In this paper, we describe processes necessary for distance certification, the system itself and we present some results of the data mining we applied on the systems preliminary data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we argue that incrementally updating the features that a text classification algorithm considers is very important for real-world textual data streams, because in most applications the distribution of data and the description of the classification concept changes over time. We propose the coupling of an incremental feature ranking method and an incremental learning algorithm that can consider different subsets of the feature vector during prediction (what we call a feature based classifier), in order to deal with the above problem. Experimental results with a longitudinal database of real spam and legitimate emails shows that our approach can adapt to the changing nature of streaming data and works much better than classical incremental learning algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents Greedy Regression Tables (GRT), a new domain independent heuristic for STRIPS worlds. The heuristic can be used to guide the search process of any state-space planner, estimating the distance between each intermediate state and the goals. At the beginning of the problem solving process a table is created, the records of which contain the ground facts of the domain, among with estimates for their distances from the goals. Additionally, the records contain information about interactions that occur while trying to achieve different ground facts simultaneously. During the search process, the heuristic, using this table, extracts quite accurate estimates for the distances between intermediate states and the goals. A simple best-first search planner that uses this heuristic has been implemented in C++ and has been tested on several "classical" problem instances taken from the bibliography and on some new taken from the AIPS-98 planning competition. Our planner has proved to be faster in all of the cases, finding also in most (but not all) of the cases shorter solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The predicted growth in aquaculture production to 80-90 million tonnes year−1 in 2050 is constrained by important drivers, which can be divided into three main clusters: (1) a resource cluster (availability of resources such as space, feed and energy); (2) an attitudinal cluster (public and consumer attitudes, legislation etc.) and (3) an innovation cluster (new technology and market developments). This chapter discuss solutions to these bottlenecks based on the current status of aquaculture and possible developments in e.g. feed technology, off-shore and land-based farms. A model for the possible future interactions between the three clusters is discussed. From this analysis, it is concluded that a major challenge for aquaculture is to achieve better control of the feed availability in the future. Only if this can be realised, aquaculture may grow in a similar way as agriculture. Space for the industry and public environmental concern are other main driving factors of the development, but these constraints can most likely be mitigated through technological improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of semi-intensive and intensive farming practice, where producers actively influence the growing condition of the fish, has been the main engine for growth in aquaculture production. The control of the biological production process has enabled a number of productivity enhancing innovations. These advances have reduced the production costs, increased the product range and reduced prices to the consumer. This has made aquaculture products competitive compared with, e.g., meat and wild-caught fish products. There is little doubt that aquaculture production will continue to grow. However, with a competitive marketplace not every country, region and species can succeed. Changes in relative productivity will determine where production takes place and the need for low unit costs will likely limit the number of high volume aquaculture species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This chapter focusses on the way aquaculture interacts with other users of the coastal zone, and specifically the side effects (externalities) of these interactions. The DPSIR (Driving forces — Pressure — State — Impact — Response) paradigm is used here to explore the externalities problem and to suggest policy solutions. Two aspects of the problem are considered, on the one hand those externalities generated by coastal zone activities that affect aquaculture, and on the other those originating from aquaculture itself. Monetary valuation is one way to assess externalities, and an example is provided for shrimp farming in mangroves (see appendix). The benefits and risks of different strategies for policy solutions based on assessments of externalities are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of the aquaculture industry and its associated environmental and social impacts have brought aquaculture to the forefront of debates about the long term viability of global food production systems. Environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are involved in aquaculture from the point of view of environmental sustainability at the local farm level, the larger ecosystem level, and the level of international trade. NGOs are driven by their missions, which may be focused on conserving nature and biodiversity, protecting the marine environment, improving the quality of food, or creating a sustainable society. NGO concerns with aquaculture are related to their missions and are often derived from related conservation themes such as agriculture, fisheries, or other marine or freshwater issues or develop out of specific local concerns of their communities. NGO activities range from research, information distribution and training to local organization, lobbying for legislative change, and partnering with industry to minimize impacts. Increasingly, the aquaculture industry is recognizing the diversity of NGOs and that each organization addresses aquaculture's impacts through a unique combination of approaches. This chapter discusses a variety of specific approaches used by NGOs to influence the aquaculture industry including encouraging the use of better management practices, educating consumers, and developing standards, with WWF-US as a specific example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is estimated that by 2010 >85% of globally available fish oil (FO) and ̃50% of fish meal (FM) will be consumed by aquaculture so, it is vital that reliance on marine raw materials is reduced and that sustainable aquafeeds are developed using more terrestrial plant products. In addition, levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), principally dioxins/furans and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), in some European FO may breach new EU limits and prevent their use in aquafeeds. Current evidence suggests that salmonids can be grown on diets where 100% of the FO is replaced by vegetable oils (VO), and that bass and bream fed up to 60% VO showed no detrimental effects on growth. However, use of VO can result in reductions of the n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids, DHA and EPA, of between 50% and 65%, although these values can be restored to 70-100% of the values in fish fed FO by the use of FO-containing finishing diets. Such high levels of FO replacement can only be used if essential fatty acid levels are maintained by inclusion of adequate FM levels. Simultaneous reductions in FM and FO will require considerable care if fish health and welfare, as well as product quality, are to be maintained. The efficacy of n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), principally EPA and DHA, in the prevention or modulation of many of the inflammatory conditions prevalent in the developed world is well established. However, there is concern that the levels of POPs (dioxins, PCBs and PBDEs), as well as the presence of toxic metals, (e.g., Pb, As, Cd and Hg), present a potential risk to human health. he nutrients, as well as contaminants, found in fish flesh are derived largely from the feed and, thus, farmed fish can be tailored to provide optimal levels of fatty acids, and selected vitamins and minerals for human consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aquaculture is undergoing a rapid worldwide expansion. Of significant concern is the increasing use of non-native species, with subsequent escapes of these species and their associated pathogens and parasites posing a serious threat to native biodiversity, economic value and ecosystem function, particularly in regions rich in endemic species. The contribution of non-native species to the growth of the global aquaculture industry and the economic benefits that it has brought to many developing countries cannot be underestimated. However, minimizing the escapes of non-native aquaculture species must be a high priority for resource managers, conservationists and the aquaculture industry. This paper reviews intentional and unintentional non-native aquaculture introductions and the environmental consequences that escapes can have on the aquatic environment and presents a potential system of risk evaluation, management and funding mechanisms to assist in the long term sustainable development of the aquaculture industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultured strains of marine and anadromous species reared for aquaculture can be either inadvertently (as in farm escapes) or deliberately (as in stocking/ ranching) introduced into the wild, where they may interact with wild conspecifics or other species. This chapter concentrates on the potentially detrimental genetic aspects of these interactions, largely in the context of species cultured in Europe but considering general principles, which have worldwide applicability. Most previous experimental work in the area has involved Atlantic salmon, which has the highest production of any finfish produced in Europe. These investigations have shown generally detrimental results for wild salmon populations, when interactions occur with reared strains. The various European species which might be affected by cultured introgressions (the major aquaculture species) are then considered under several headings: genetic composition of cultured strains compared with wild populations; modes of introduction into the wild; direct and indirect genetic interactions with wild populations/species; consequences of such interactions; establishing the severity of effects of wild/reared interactions with different species, utilising opportunist situations and field experiments; and, methods such as induction of sterility in reared strains to reduce detrimental effects. Relative risks for wild populations of the major aquaculture species are then considered, and general and specific genetic recommendations are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal aquaculture is widespread in Europe and there is a need for proper coastal space management among the different users of the coastal zone. Integration of aquaculture into coastal space entails both siting installations in physical space in relation to the existing network of coastal users, such as shipping, fishing, recreational activities and other industry, and ensuring that the extent of aquaculture does not lead to widespread changes to coastal ecosystems. Where the competition for space is particularly intense, political decisions, which simultaneously seek to minimize both environmental impacts and user conflict, may be the only mechanism to allocate space to new aquaculture installations. From an ecological perspective, better integration of aquaculture into European coastal space so that ecological carrying capacities are not exceeded requires knowledge-based management of the interaction of ecological impacts of aquaculture with those of other coastal users, particularly concerning nutrient loading, and modification to biodiversity and species that are important to fisheries. Geographical information systems (GIS) are proven tools for natural resource management and space planning and are suggested to be used for planning aquaculture's integration into European coastal areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine aquaculture is regulated and monitored through international and national legislation that varies significantly between countries and regions around the world. Research is still needed to improve the monitoring programmes, in particular those related to the ecosystem approach at larger scales. Most monitoring programmes include examination of the benthic environment and some also of water quality, although impacts are difficult to detect due to rapid dilution. In the Mediterranean benthic monitoring may include use of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica, as this species is widespread and highly sensitive to aquaculture waste products. This chapter provides details of two monitoring programmes: (1) salmon farming in Norway and (2) sea bream/sea bass and tuna farming in Malta. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fish farms release dissolved and particulate waste into the ecosystem and the most important impacts on the water column and the sediments are described at different scales (A, B, C zones). An overview of the ethical and legal frameworks for management of aquaculture is given, introducing the ecosystem approach to regulation through the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) approach and EQSs (Environmental Quality Standards). The Scottish loch Creran is used as a case study due to the existence of long term monitoring and the presence of aquaculture in the loch. Finally the prospects for management of aquaculture within the European Water Framework Directive is discussed, and it is predicted that the implementation may either result in limited changes (e.g., same practice but outphasing of environmental hazards) or major changes (e.g., ecosystem approach to aquaculture through polycultures) to Scottish regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioactive peptides encrypted within the native milk proteins can be released by enzymatic proteolysis, food processing, or gastrointestinal digestion. These peptides possess a wide range of properties, including immunomodulatory properties. The first months of life represent a critical period for the maturation of the immune system because a tolerance for nutrient molecules should be developed while that for pathogen-derived antigens is avoided. Evidence has accumulated to suggest that milk peptides may regulate gastrointestinal immunity, guiding the local immune system until it develops its full functionality. Our data using the weaning piglet as the model suggest that several milk peptides can downregulate various immune properties at a time (one to two weeks after weaning) that coincides with immaturity of the immune system. The protein kinase A system and/or the exchange protein directly activated by cyclic AMP (Epac-1) are implicated in the mechanism through which milk peptides can affect immune function in the early postweaning period. Despite the fact that the research in this field is in its infancy, the evidence available suggests that milk protein peptides may promote development of neonatal immune competence. Milk contains a variety of components that provide immunological protection and facilitate the development of neonatal immune competence. Two main categories of milk compounds are thought to be associated with immunological activity. The first category includes cytokines, which neonates do not produce efficiently. Cytokines present in milk are thought to be protected against intestinal proteolysis and could alleviate immunological deficits, aiding immune system maturation (Kelleher&Lonnerdal, 2001; Bryan et al., 2006). The second category of milk compounds includes milk protein peptides. Milk peptides may affect mucosal immunity possibly by guiding local immunity until it develops its full functionality (Baldi et al., 2005). This chapter focuses on the effects of milk peptides on immune function and attempts to provide an overview of the knowledge available in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current proteomics technologies generate large number of data among which the investigator has to identify the promising diagnostic/prognostic biomarkers as well as potential therapeutic targets. For the latter, classification of proteins into meaningful families is needed. Current databases, featuring a high level of interconnectivity (cross referencing), provide the tools necessary to bring various data together, facilitating protein classification and elucidation of protein function and interoperativity. This chapter provides guidelines to explore the informationally rich peptide sequences generated by the application of the proteomics methodologies by the use of web-based tools, with the objective to predict potential protein function. After proper preprocessing (e.g., for internal repeats) of a query protein sequence, known domains can be identified, which aid in dividing the query into smaller meaningful parts. Any unclassified remainder of the protein provides the material for low-level comparative analysis for the discovery of distant homologues or candidate novel domain types to be verified experimentally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The facial vascular network is highly characteristic of the individual, much the way his fingerprint is. An unobtrusive way to capture this information is through thermal imaging. The convective heat transfer effect from the flow of "hot" arterial blood in superficial vessels creates characteristic thermal imprints, which are at a gradient with the surrounding tissue. This casts sigmoid edges on the human tissue where major blood vessels are present. We present an algorithmic methodology to extract and represent the facial vasculature. The methodology combines image morphology and probabilistic inference. The morphology captures the overall structure of the vascular network and the probabilistic part reflects the positional uncertainty for the vessel walls, due to the phenomenon of thermal diffusion. The accuracy of the methodology is tested through extensive experimentation and meticulous ground-truthing. Furthermore, the efficacy of this information for identity recognition is tested on substantial databases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the needs for fast, efficient and high quality production increases, it is important for every company or manufacturing facility to be able to optimize the resources needed. This paper focuses and resolves the problem of best tool selection for a rough milling operation on 3-axis machines, especially for the production of sculptured surfaces. The tool selection methodology is based on a genetic algorithm optimization procedure. The objective of the algorithm is to achieve quicker machining parameters. Direct comparisons between CAM software simulations and real time experiments have been performed to verify the results. Tool type comparison between flat and ball end cutters is also conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A matrix is called G-circulant if its columns and rows are indexed by the elements of a group G. When G is cyclic we obtain the usual circulant matrices, which appear in the study of linear transformations of polygons. In this paper, we study linear transformations of cubes and prisms using G-circulant matrices, where G is the direct product of cyclic groups. As application, we study the evolution of a single cell of an n-dimensional grid under the subdivision algorithm of the multivariate quadratic B-spline. Regarding the prism, we study its evolution under a tensor extension of the Doo-Sabin subdivision scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For centuries vegetation has been used to prevent and control the effects of erosion and mass wasting processes. Techniques have developed continuously until now, when the increased environmental awareness of society has resulted in them being used as key tools in landscape conservation. The need for environmentally friendly techniques to mitigate the problems generated by soil instability (mass movements, rockfall, landslides, etc.) and the incidence of erosion have provoked the appearance in recent years of two different ecotechnological concepts:ground bio-engineering and eco-engineering. Both concepts are complementary, sometimes controversial, and have in common the use of biological materials (live and inert plant materials) as main and essential tools. In this Chapter, an updated and complete review of the different ground bio- and eco-engineering techniques in use is presented. The possible advantages and drawbacks of their application with regard to different degradation factors and processes are pre sented and future perspectives discussed.From the simplest methods such as seeding, mulching or planting, to the most complex ones that integrate different engineering techniques using very different materials (live cribwalls, vegetated gabions, etc.), we describe the uses of vegetation for increasing slope stability and restoring and preserving degraded land. The use of eco-engineering techniques against rockfall and windthrow, relevant problems in many European mountainous areas have also been considered. Finally, the possibilities of combining both eco- and bio-engineering techniques are described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After a short introduction on the fundamentals of subdivision surfaces, the more advanced material of this chapter focuses on two main aspects. First, shape interrogation issues are discussed; in particular, artifacts, typical of subdivision surfaces, are analysed. The second aspect is related to how structuring the geometric information: a multi-resolution approach is a natural choice for this geometric representation, and it can be seen as a possible way to structure geometry. Moreover, a first semantic structure can be given by a set of meaningful geometric constraints that the shape has to preserve, often due to the specific application context. How subdivision surfaces can cope with constraint-based modelling is treated in the chapter with a special attention to applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the support of IBM, NC State's Colleges of Engineering and Management will begin offering masters-level curricula in Service Sciences, Management and Engineering (SSME) in fall 2006. This paper reports the rationale for these new programs, describes their content, summarizes some SSME research that is underway, and notes future directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some say that an increase in security does not necessarily mean a further encroachment on privacy — indeed, security is necessary to protect personal data and our privacy. Networks must be secure, our personal devices, reliable, dependable and trustworthy. But security is a multifaceted term, with many dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 5 identified safeguards against the threats and vulnerabilities affecting privacy, identity, trust, security and the digital divide in an AmI world. In this chapter, we offer to particular stakeholders several specific recommendations some of which flow from the safeguards identified above. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The multiplicity of threats and vulnerabilities associated with AmI will require a multiplicity of safeguards to respond to the risks and problems posed by the emerging technological systems and their applications. In some instances, a single safeguard might be sufficient to address a specified threat or vulnerability. More typically, however, a combination of safeguards will be necessary to address each threat and vulnerability. In still other instances, one safeguard might apply to numerous treats and vulnerabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this chapter, we present a review of threats and vulnerabilities that could afflict society and individuals in the AmI world in the context of the key policy issues of privacy, identity, trust, security and digital divide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this chapter, we present four "dark scenarios" that highlight the key socio-economic, legal, technological and ethical risks to privacy, identity, trust, security and inclusiveness posed by new AmI technologies. We call them dark scenarios, because they show things that could go wrong in an AmI world, because they present visions of the future that we do not want to become reality. The scenarios expose threats and vulnerabilities as a way to inform policy-makers and planners about issues they need to take into account in developing new policies or updating existing legislation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This chapter provides an overview of ambient intelligence in order to set the stage for the subsequent identification and discussion of threats, vulnerabilities and safeguards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The brave new world of ambient intelligence is almost upon us. Ambient intelligence is the phrase coined to describe a world in which "intelligence" is embedded in virtually everything around us. It has been called an Internet of things, where radio frequency identification (RFID) tags are attached to all products. It is a world of smart dust with networked sensors and actuators so small as to be virtually invisible, where the clothes you wear, the paint on your walls, the carpets on your floor, and the paper money in your pocket have a computer communications capability. It is a 4G world where today's mobile phone is transformed into a terminal capable of receiving television, accessing the Internet, downloading music, reading RFIDs, taking pictures, enabling interactive video telephony, and much more. It is a world of convergence, where heterogeneous devices are able to communicate seamlessly across today's disparate networks, a world of machine learning and intelligent software, where computers monitor our activities, routines and behaviours to predict what we will do or want next. In the brave new world of ambient intelligence, we will never have to worry about losing track of our children because they will have a location device implanted under the skin or, if they are squeamish about that, then at least they will have one in their wristwatch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophrenia and related disorders are devastating human neuropsychiatric disorders of complex etiology. Epidemiological and family studies indicate both genetic and environmental contributions to disease etiology.We propose that the altered expression of endogenous retroviruses such asHERV-Wcontribute to somecases of schizophrenia. We present both theoretical considerations and experimental evidence supporting this association. The further study of endogenous retroviral expression within the central nervous system might lead to new methods for the diagnosis and treatment of schizophrenia and related disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

RNA interference (RNAi) is an endogenous, specific gene silencing mechanism that uses double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) to suppress the expression of targeted genes. In insects, silencing occurs principally through mRNA degradation, but inhibition of translation may also play an important role. The RNAi machinery of the cell is itself used to protect genome integrity and as an antiviral defense, and some insect viruses have evolved genes that suppress host RNAi. The technology of RNAi can be used experimentally both for gene discovery and also to elucidate gene function. Specific dsRNAs can be used to selectively silence known immunerelated genes, even where traditional genetic approaches are unable to achieve this. This can be done through molecular genetics, by transforming the target insect with a hairpin construct that generates dsRNA when transcribed, or pharmacologically, by administering exogenous dsRNA specific to the targeted gene (systemic RNAi). These techniques are well suited to testing hypotheses about the functions of particular immune-related genes, especially interactions between pathogens or parasites and their insect hosts. Silencing can be precisely timed and targeted both in vivo and in vitro. In the case of insect viruses, RNAi can be used not only to suppress expression of host genes, but also of viral genes. Molecular genetics allows construction of DNA hairpin libraries; these are well suited to screening for genes with novel immune-related phenotypes both in vivo and in vitro. RNAi is not always effective, and possible reasons for this are discussed. Finally, RNAi treatments may in some cases induce off-target effects, and possible explanations for this are considered. It is well known in vertebrates that dsRNA can itself induce immune responses. This possibility deserves further exploration in insects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this chapter we describe an innovative real-time fleet management system designed and implemented for eCourier Ltd (London, UK) for which patents are pending in the United States and elsewhere. This paper describes both the business challenges and benefits of the implementation of a real-time fleet management system (with reference to empirical metrics such as courier efficiency, service times, and financial data), as well as the theoretical and implementation challenges of constructing such a system. In short, the system dramatically reduces the requirements of human supervisors for fleet management, improves service and increases courier efficiency. We first illustrate the overall architecture, then depict the main algorithms, including the service territory zoning methodology, the travel time forecasting procedure and the job allocation heuristic [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distribution schedules designed a priori may not cope adequately with unexpected events that occur during the plan execution, such as adverse traffic conditions or vehicle failures. This limitation may lead to delays, higher costs, and inferior customer service. This chapter presents the design and implementation of a real-time fleet management system that handles such unexpected events during urban freight distribution. The system monitors delivery vehicles, detects deviations from the distribution plan using dynamic travel time prediction, and adjusts the schedule accordingly by suggesting effective rerouting interventions. The system has been tested in a Greek 3PL operator and the results show significant improvements in customer service [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distribution of goods based on road services in urban areas, usually known as City Logistics, contributes to traffic congestion and is affected by traffic congestion, generates environmental impacts and incurs in high logistics costs. Therefore a holistic approach to the design and evaluation of City Logistics applications requires an integrated framework in which all components could work together that is must be modelled not only in terms of the core models for vehicle routing and fleet management, but also in terms of models able of including the dynamic aspects of traffic on the underlying road network, namely if Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) applications are taken into account. This paper reports on the modelling framework developed in the national projects SADERYL-I and II, sponsored by the Spanish "Dirección General de Ciencia y Tecnología" (DGCYT) and tested in the European Project MEROPE of the INTERREG IIIB Programme. The modelling framework consists of a Decision Support System whose core architecture is composed by a Data Base, to store all the data required by the implied models: location of logistic centres and customers, capacities of warehouses and depots, transportation costs, operational costs, fleet data, etc.; a Database Management System, for the updating of the information stored in the data base; a Model Base, containing the family of models and algorithms to solve the related problems, discrete location, network location, street vehicle routing and scheduling; a Model Base Management System, to update, modify, add or delete models from the Model Base; a GIS based Graphic User Interface supporting the dialogues to define and update data, select the model suitable to the intended problem, generate automatically from the digital map of the road network the input graph for the Network Location and Vehicle Routing models, apply the corresponding algorithm, visualize the problem and the results, etc. To account for the dynamics of urban traffic flows the system includes an underlying dynamic traffic simulation model (AIMSUN in this case) which is able to track individually the fleet vehicles, emulating in this way the monitoring of fleet vehicles in a real time fleet management system, gathering dynamic data (i.e. current position, previous position, current speed, previous speed, etc.) while following the vehicle, in a similar way as the data that in real life an equipped vehicle could provide. This is the information required by a "Dynamic Router and Scheduler" to determine which vehicle will be assigned to the new service and which will be the new route for the selected vehicle [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dynamic response to emergencies requires real time information from transportation agencies, public safety agencies and hospitals as well as the many essential operational components. In emergency response operations, good vehicle dispatching strategies can result in more efficient service by reducing vehicles' travel times and system preparation time and the coordination between these components directly influences the effectiveness of activities involved in emergency response. In this chapter, an integrated emergency response fleet deployment system is proposed which embeds an optimization approach to assist the dispatch center operators in assigning emergency vehicles to emergency calls, while having the capability to look ahead for future demands. The mathematical model deals with the real time vehicle dispatching problem while accounting for the service requirements and coverage concerns for future demand by relocating and diverting the on-route vehicles and remaining vehicles among stations. A rolling-horizon approach is adopted in the model to reduce the relocation sites in order to save computation time. A simulation program is developed to validate the model and to compare various dispatching strategies [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transportation problems, in terms of both passenger and freight applications, are increasingly being addressed with inter-modal solutions. This chapter discusses the problem of computing optimum paths on a network with many modes of transport and time-varying link costs and travel times, accounting for the fixed schedule modes and mode-switching delays. An efficient algorithm is introduced that computes optimum path trees from all nodes and possible discrete departure times, while accounting for travel and transfer delays, as well as differences in perceived costs associated with specific modes and transfers. The algorithm, called the time-dependent inter-modal minimum cost path (TDIMCP) algorithm, is extended to set the necessary framework for solving the problem of inter-modal routing of hazardous materials, taking into consideration both risk and cost at the transfer points and travel links. Travel and transfer risk associated with hazmat routing are incorporated into the cost calculation of the TDIMCP problem, considering both the likelihood of an incident and the consequences of that incident. The inter-modal hazmat routing algorithm is then applied to a series of scenarios on a test network to illustrate the behavior of the algorithm [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On-demand air transportation is progressively obtaining the popularity with its flexibility, convenience, and guaranteed availability. However, its unique dynamic characteristics, such as short-noticed new demands and disruptive unscheduled maintenance, challenge the efficient operations, since they will significantly affect the priori algorithmic solutions. An integrated optimization model is presented to tackle the dynamic nature of the on-demand air transportation operations. A dynamic planning method together with a rolling-horizon approach is used to accommodate new demand. A realistic solution to recover from unscheduled maintenance events is also provided and demonstrated to be effective based on real world scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This chapter presents an approximate dynamic programming-based dynamic fleet management model that can handle random load arrivals, random travel times and multiple vehicle types. Our model decomposes the fleet management problem into a sequence of time-indexed subproblems by formulating it as a dynamic program and uses approximations of the value function. To handle random travel times, the state variable of our dynamic program includes all individual decisions over a relevant portion of the history. We propose a sampling-based strategy to approximate the value function under this high-dimensional state variable in a tractable manner. Under our value function approximation strategy, the fleet management problem decomposes into a sequence of time-indexed min-cost network flow subproblems that naturally yield integer solutions. Moreover, the subproblem for each time period further decomposes by the locations, making our model suitable for parallel computing. Computational experiments show that our model yields high-quality solutions within reasonable runtimes [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The VRP is a key to efficient transportation logistics. It is a computationally very hard problem. Whereas classical OR models are static and deterministic, these assumptions are rarely warranted in an industrial setting. Lately, there has been an increased focus on dynamic and stochastic vehicle routing in the research community. However, very few generic routing tools based on stochastic or dynamic models are available. We illustrate the need for dynamics and stochastic models in industrial routing, describe the Dynamic and Stochastic VRP, and how we have extended a generic VRP solver to cope with dynamics and uncertainty [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This chapter discusses important characteristics seen within dynamic vehicle routing problems. We discuss the differences between the traditional static vehicle routing problems and its dynamic counterparts. We give an in-depth introduction to the degree of dynamism measure which can be used to classify dynamic vehicle routing systems. Methods for evaluation of the performance of algorithms that solve on-line routing problems are discussed and we list some of the most important issues to include in the system objective. Finally, we provide a three-echelon classification of dynamic vehicle routing systems based on their degree of dynamism and the system objective [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews and classifies the work done in the field of dynamic vehicle routing. We focus, in particular, on problems where the uncertainty comes from the occurrence of new requests. Problem-solving approaches are investigated in contexts where consolidation of multiple requests onto the same vehicle is allowed and addressed through the design of planned routes. Starting with pure myopic approaches, we then review in later sections the issues of diversion and anticipation of future requests [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]