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There are two opposite views on whether working memory can guide visual attention. Some researchers have reported that the contents of working memory guide visual attention for capturing target efficiently. However, others reported that they could not find any evidence of attention capture by working memory. In this study, it tried to find evidence for the first view with computer simulation. Two models based on two hypotheses were set up in simulating the simplified 4×4 Sudoku problem solving by which an fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) experiment was performed at the same time. One model is based on working memory guiding visual selective attention assumption while the other is based on no guiding random attention assumption. Both of the models predict the response time (RT) and blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) response. Cognitive cost analysis on the predictions shows that more cost was occupied on no guiding model resulting in more differences between fMRI real data and predictions while the other can reduce the cost and get good fitness. This study confirms the first view and shows that working memory guiding visual search for capturing target is the intelligence of human brain in reducing the cognitive cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this chapter we conclude the book by reviewing the work we have done to validate the potential of the 2.5-D integration scheme. Moreover, we summarize the major challenges that need to be addressed by 2.5-D VLSI design, testing, and fabrication technologies and then propose tentative solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cost-effectiveness of single reading with CAD as an alternative to double reading was assessed in a national screening programme using CAD with full field digital mammography. The impact of CAD on the time taken to read screening films (n=5710) and on the proportion of films referred for arbitration and for assessment was measured (n=3064). No evidence was found of a change in the time taken to read films and no evidence of a change in rates of referral or recall. Estimates of the cost implications were made under three different scenarios for screening units. We conclude that single reading with CAD is likely to be a cost-effective alternative to double reading in terms of radiologist time. Published data however shows increased recall rates using CAD and no significant increase in sensitivity for CAD use over single reading. Any decision to introduce CAD instead of double reading should take into account the impact of sensitivity and specificity on women attending for screening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This chapter briefly identifies some technologies that would augment or replace ecosystem services in order to reduce the direct human demand on nature. This identification is meant to be illustrative rather than comprehensive. This chapter does not, however, evaluate the net efficacy or desirability of listed technologies based on their costs, benefits, and impacts on nature. Those issues are outside this chapter's scope. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Many firms, in the present context of economy, seek to develop better offers through innovation, quality, and efficiency in distribution and service in stead of competing for a lower level in prices. Setting up the projected cost of the offer price, identifying and correcting the deviations of the actual costs from the pre-established level are the ABCs in economy, in the general management of firms and, especially, in the management of financial activities. Moreover, in order to be aware of the existing realities in organizations regarding the need for knowledge and cost analysis in setting up the prices policy, we have conducted a selective scientific research, one of our objectives being that of evaluating the degree in which firms benefit from a cost analysis system in the setting up of policy prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 6 of the book "The Complete Guide to Locating and Profiting From Emerging Real Estate Markets: Everything You Need to Know Explained Simply" is presented. It suggests the manner in which one can clearly establish a budget for new acquisitions through figuring out investment expenses, and cost analysis.

This research was conducted to apply activity-based costing (ABC) in an after press service company in Chiang Mai province, Thailand. The company produces all of its products by one-stop service (such as coating, stitching, binding, die cutting, and gluing). All products are made to order, and have different sizes and patterns. A strategy of low price is used to compete in the marketplace. After cost analysis, the study found that the company has high overhead (36.5% of total cost). The company's problem is its use of traditional cost accounting, which has low accuracy in assigning overhead costs. If management uses this information when pricing customer orders, losses may occur because real production costs may be higher than the selling price. Therefore, the application of ABC in cost analysis can help executives receive accurate cost information; establish a sound pricing strategy; and improve the manufacturing process by determining work activities which have excessively high production costs. According to this research, 6 out of 56 items had a production cost higher than the selling price, leading to losses of 123,923 baht per year. Methods used to solve this problem were: reducing production costs; establishing suitable prices; and creating a sales promotion with lower prices for customers whose orders include processes involving unused capacity. These actions will increase overall sales of the company, and allow more efficient use of its machinery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introducing enterprise information systems (EIS) is usually associated with high costs. It is therefore crucial to understand those factors that determine or influence these costs. Existing cost analysis methods are difficult to apply. Particularly, these methods are unable to cope with the dynamic interactions of the many technological, organizational and project-driven cost factors, which specifically arise in the context of EIS. Picking up this problem, in previous work we introduced the EcoPOST framework to investigate the complex cost structures of EIS engineering projects through qualitative cost evaluation models. This paper extends this framework and introduces a pattern-based approach enabling the reuse of EcoPOST evaluation models. Our patterns do not only simplify the design of EcoPOST evaluation models, but also improve the quality and comparability of cost evaluations. Therewith, we further strengthen our EcoPOST framework as an important tool supporting EIS engineers in gaining a better understanding of those factors that determine the costs of EIS engineering projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research focuses on analyzing the cost effectiveness of a database intrusion detection system that uses dependencies among data items to detect malicious transactions. The model suggested in this paper considers three main factors: the quality of intrusion detection, the probability of intrusion, and the cost structure of an organization whose data is protected by the intrusion detection system. We developed a step by step approach that helps in determining the optimal configuration expressed by the response strategy and the threshold value. The experimental results show that our model is capable of finding the optimal configuration while taking the cost structure of an organization into consideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses some of the traits of visual journaling that make it appealing and distinct for entrepreneurial purposes. It mentions the benefits of making a visual journal such as its cost effectiveness and scalability, accessibility and portability. It also offers suggestions for shopping supplies of craft materials that can be used for making a visual journal.

Introducing enterprise information systems (EIS) is usually associated with high costs. It is therefore crucial to understand those factors that determine or influence these costs. Though software cost estimation has received considerable attention during the last decades, it is difficult to apply existing approaches to EIS. This difficulty particularly stems from the inability of these methods to deal with the dynamic interactions of the many technological, organizational and project-driven cost factors which specifically arise in the context of EIS. Picking up this problem, we introduce the EcoPOST framework to investigate the complex cost structures of EIS engineering projects through qualitative cost evaluation models. This paper extends previously described concepts and introduces design rules and guidelines for cost evaluation models in order to enhance the development of meaningful and useful EcoPOST cost evaluation models. A case study illustrates the benefits of our approach. Most important, our EcoPOST framework is an important tool supporting EIS engineers in gaining a better understanding of the critical factors determining the costs of EIS engineering projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 10 of the book "On-Demand Supply Management: World Class Strategies, Practices and Technology," by Douglas A. Smock, Robert A. Rudzki and Stephen C. Rogers, is presented. It focuses on should/could cost. It discusses where should cost can be applied which include internal and external cost analysis. It suggests including life-cycle costs in representing total cost of ownerships. It offers electronic integration of cost records with other appropriate data.

Chapter 7 of the book "The Restaurant Manager's Handbook," by Douglas R. Brown is presented. It mentions the significance of cost effectiveness implementation to a restaurant. It cites the relevance of determining the maximum food cost percentage needed for the operation. Moreover, the preparation of menu is also discussed.

Efficiency analyses provide a framework for relating program costs to outcomes. Whereas cost-benefit analyses directly compare benefits to costs in commensurable (monetary) terms, cost-effectiveness analyses relate costs expressed in monetary terms to units of substantive results achieved. Efficiency analyses can require considerable technical sophistication and the use of consultants. As a way of thinking about program results, however, they direct attention to costs as well as benefits and have great value for the evaluation field. Efficiency analyses can be useful at all stages of a program, from planning through implementation and modification. Currently, ex post analyses are more commonplace than ex ante analyses in the social program arena because reasonably sound estimates of costs and benefits prior to program implementation are often lacking. Nevertheless, ex ante analyses should be undertaken more often than they are, particularly for programs that are expensive either to implement or to evaluate. Different sets of assumptions can create a range of analyses; one thing these analyses may reveal is the improbability of achieving the desired net benefits under any sensible set of assumptions. Efficiency analyses use different assumptions and may produce correspondingly different results depending on which accounting perspective is taken: that of individual targets or participants, program sponsors, or the community or society. Which perspective should be taken depends on the intended consumers of the analysis and thus involves political choice. Cost-benefit analysis requires that program costs and benefits be known, quantified, and transformed to a common measurement unit. Options for monetizing outcomes or benefits include money measurements, market valuation, econometric estimation, hypothetical questions asked of participants, and observation of political choices. Shadow, or accounting, prices are used for costs and benefits when market prices are... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 40 of the book "2003 ASHRAE HANDBOOK: Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Applications" is presented. It offers guidance for developing building monitoring projects which provide the essential measured data at acceptable cost. It also discusses reasons for energy monitoring, protocols for performance monitoring, and steps for project design and implementation.

Background: Cardiovascular disease accounts for much morbidity and mortality in developed countries and is becoming increasingly important in less developed regions. Systolic blood pressure above 115 mm Hg accounts for two-thirds of strokes and almost half of ischaemic heart disease cases, and cholesterol concentrations exceeding 3.8 mmol/L for 18% and 55%, respectively. We report estimates of the population health effects and costs of selected interventions to reduce the risks associated with high cholesterol concentrations and blood pressure in areas of the world with differing epidemiological profiles. Methods: Effect sizes were derived from systematic reviews or meta-analyses, and the effect on health outcomes projected over time for populations with differing age, sex, and epidemiological profiles. Incidence data from estimates of burden of disease were used in a four-state longitudinal population model to calculate disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) averted and patients treated. Costs were taken from previous publications, or estimated by local experts, in 14 regions. Findings: Non-personal health interventions, including government action to stimulate a reduction in the salt content of processed foods, are cost-effective ways to limit cardiovascular disease and could avert over 21 million DALYs per year worldwide. Combination treatment for people whose risk of a cardiovascular event over the next 10 years is above 35% is also cost effective leading to substantial additional health benefits by averting an additional 65 million DALYs per year worldwide. Interpretation: The combination of personal and non-personal health interventions evaluated here could lower the global incidence of cardiovascular events by as much as 50%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health economics literature provides ample evidence for existing inefficiencies in health. Economic appraisal seeks to improve efficiency by guiding policy-makers in how scarce resources can be used to derive the greatest possible social benefit. In the past many cost-effectiveness (CE) studies have addressed sector-wide cost-effectiveness in health. However, as described in this paper, current studies suffer from a number of shortcomings, including the inability to assess the current mix of interventions, low generalisability and inconsistent methodological approaches. Most importantly, it is argued that the current incremental approach to cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) does not provide decision-makers with sufficient guidance for sector-wide priority setting in health. Instead, a broader complementary sectoral approach is proposed via the application of a generalised CEA framework that allows examination of existing inefficiencies in health systems. The wide variations in cost-effectiveness ratios observed among interventions that are currently in use, suggest there is considerable room to improve efficiency by moving from inefficient interventions to efficient interventions that are underutilised. This information will contribute to a more informed debate on resource allocation in the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chapter 9 of the book "Making Choices in Health: WHO Guide to Cost-Effectiveness Analysis" is presented. It identified 9 distinct issues on equity and justice that arises in the construction and use of cost effectiveness analysis (CEA), which aims to minimize the burdens of disease and to maximize health outcomes. Each issue requires explicit attention and deliberation using CEA in decisions about health resource prioritization and allocation by health policy makers.

Interest is growing in the application of standard statistical inferential techniques to the calculation of cost-effectiveness ratios (CER), but individual-level data will not be available in many cases because it is very difficult to undertake prospective controlled trials of many public health interventions. We propose the application of probabilistic uncertainty analysis using Monte Carlo simulations, in combination with nonparametric bootstrapping techniques where appropriate. This paper also discusses how decision-makers should interpret the CER of interventions where uncertainty intervals overlap. We show how the incorporation of uncertainty around costs and effects of interventions into a stochastic league table provides additional information to decision-makers for priority setting. Stochastic league tables inform decision-makers about the probability that a specific intervention would be included in the optimal mix of interventions for different resource levels, given the uncertainty surrounding the interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presentation of the results of uncertainty analysis in cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) in the literature has been relatively academic with little attention paid to the question of how decision-makers should interpret the information particularly when confidence intervals overlap. This question is especially relevant to sectoral CEA providing information on the costs and effects of a wide range of interventions. This paper introduces stochastic league tables to inform decision-makers about the probability that a specific intervention would be included in the optimal mix of interventions for various levels of resource availability, taking into account the uncertainty surrounding costs and effectiveness. This information helps decision-makers decide on the relative attractiveness of different intervention mixes, and also on the implications for trading gains in efficiency for gains in other goals such as reducing health inequalities and increasing health system responsiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing use of cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) to evaluate specific interventions is dominated by studies of prospective new interventions compared with current practice. This type of analysis does not explicitly take a sectoral perspective in which the costs and effectiveness of all possible interventions are compared, in order to select the mix that maximizes health for a given set of resource constraints. WHO guidelines on generalized CEA propose the application of CEA to a wide range of interventions to provide general information on the relative costs and health benefits of different interventions in the absence of various highly local decision constraints. This general approach will contribute to judgements on whether interventions are highly cost-effective, highly cost-ineffective, or something in between. Generalized CEAs require the evaluation of a set of interventions with respect to the counterfactual of the null set of the related interventions, i.e. the natural history of disease. Such general perceptions of relative cost-effectiveness, which do not pertain to any specific decision-maker, can be a useful reference point for evaluating the directions for enhancing allocative efficiency in a variety of settings. The proposed framework allows the identification of current allocative inefficiencies as well as opportunities presented by new interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Part 1 of the book "Making Choices in Health: WHO Guide to Cost-Effectiveness Analysis" is presented. It proposes a standard set of methodological choices on how to perform generalized cost-effectiveness analysis (GCEA) to enhance the comparability and generalizability of results. It considers issues related to study design, estimating costs, assessing health effects, discounting, uncertainty and sensitivity analysis, and reporting results.

Chapter Nine of the book "Controlling Restaurant and Food Service Labor Costs: 365 Secrets Revealed" by Sharon Fullen is presented. It discusses topics related to food establishments' financial decisions, accounting assessment, cost analysis, return on investment. It also tackles labor cost calculations and productivity resources.

Chapter 2 of the book "Controlling Restaurant and Food Service Food Costs," is presented. It states the importance of understanding the calculation of business ratios including food-cost percentage, weighted food-cost percentage, and daily food-cost analysis. It highlights several cost ratios including actual food-cost percentage, potential food-cost percentage, and sales mix.

An encyclopedia entry for cost effectiveness analysis (CEA) is presented. CEA refers to the process of using theory, data and models to examine a problem's relevant objectives and alternative means of achieving them aimed to assist decision makers in choosing the best alternative solutions to a problem. The difference between CEA and the discipline of operations research is explained. The role of mathematical models used in CEA is discussed.

An encyclopedia entry for cost analysis is presented. Cost analysis is the process of estimating the individual and comparative costs of alternative ways of accomplishing an objective. A brief background on the development and evolution of cost-effectiveness analysis and cost analysis is presented as well as how both types of analysis make use of operations research methods. The methods used in cost analysis is discussed.

The article presents information on ebusiness. eBusiness is a technical issue. The needs of enterprises and the desires of customers have not changed. eBusiness is a broader and more easily defined term than the commonly used eCommerce. The latter is sometimes used narrowly to refer to shopping on the Internet' but also in a much broader context to include virtually every electronic trading and support activity a business can undertake. Replacing the physical store by its virtual equivalent will mean that dramatic reduction in the cost of real estate can be achieved and the saving invested on creating new eShops to increase revenue within a global market. In a competitive world, new costs will also be incurred.

This section presents basic definitions, concepts, themes, issues, methods, perspectives and institutions related to tourism. The Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) was founded as a not-for-profit agency in Hawaii in 1951. PATA was established to promote the Pacific Asia region's destinations and to provide information, research, education and training programs for its members. Pacific Rim is a collective term for nations in the Pacific region which foster economic cooperation and reflect a common outlook in international relationships. A package tour is an exclusive form of travel organized by intermediaries or middlemen. It represents a bundle of tourism goods and services, marketed as one particular product or brand and sold at an exclusive price. Paratransit refers to a class of public passenger transportation that is more flexible and personalized than conventional forms such as rail or bus. Partnership is defined as arrangements devoted to some common end among otherwise independent organizations. In tourism, this relationship refers to all cooperative activities sustained between the private and public sectors, or even strategic alliances practiced within the industry itself. Payroll cost analysis is based on a ratio, which is in turn a percentage derived by dividing total payroll and related expenses by total revenue for operating departments. For service departments, it is analyzed on a comparative basis.

This section presents basic definitions, concepts, themes, issues, methods, perspectives and institutions related to tourism. The concept of facilitation has grown from its narrow limits of frontier formalities and customs procedures, to denote a free and safe movement of tourists. The term facilities management has two meanings. The technical meaning relates to the management of building, plant and equipment to ensure they are maintained in good condition. The other meaning refers to the contracting out of this function to a contractor, who will manage the facilities on behalf of the owner/operator. Fantasy is the desire to engage in activities that are normatively proscribed by ordinary role expectations, tourist fantasy permits the realization of dreams through travel to extraordinary places. Farm tourism is distinguished by the specific milieu where it occurs. It is also known as agrotourism. Feminism covers a number of philosophical positions which question the gender inequalities and exploitation in tourism-related work opportunities, leisure and representation, as well as the masculinist discourse of tourism research. Food and beverage cost analysis is the examination and analysis of the cost of sales of these two operating departments in various tourism sectors.

Chapter 7 of the book "Finance for Shopping Center Nonfinancial Professionals" is presented. It focuses on the use of quantitative data analysis in the management of shopping centers. It outlines the different tasks involved in lease management and reporting. It explains how the minimum rent is computed. It presents a guide on using sales reports for percentage rent projections and occupancy cost analysis.

The article presents a discussion related to the cost-benefit analysis. People invest resources when they believe that the benefits of their investments will outweigh the costs. A cost-benefit analysis reveals whether a particular investment is worthwhile. However, cost-benefit analysis is more than financial analysis. Financial analysis is an effective decision-making tool, but it is only one tool. People and organizations do not base all investment decisions on financial projections. Some investments are made for strategic reasons.

The article presents a discussion related to cost analysis. Decreasing budgets and increasing international competition are among the pressures that have focused increased attention on system cost. As such, cost analysis is a critical component of systems analysis, the complementary activity to system engineering that considers programmatic issues along with technical performance. A cost analysis consists of an estimate of resources required to realize, sustain or retire a system and an assessment of the uncertainty inherent in the estimate.

The purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate that, contrary to expectations, neither risk assessment nor cost-benefit analysis proved useful to decision-makers faced with the potential health crisis from swine flu in the U.S. in 1976. The swine flu decision seems almost ready-made for the two techniques: First, a plausibly accurate calculation of the risk of the epidemic's occurrence ought to have been completed and second, a further risk analysis of the probable outcomes for Americans of such an epidemic should have been completed. By February 12th, the Centers for Disease Control confirmed that they had isolated four swine flu samples as distinct from other types of flu. In retrospect, the insurance companies, regardless of their standing with Congress or anyone else, proved to be correct in their assessment of the risks involved in mass inoculation while the government experts consistently understated those risks in order to get the program moving quickly. The cost-benefit study conducted for the 1976 swine flu program defined benefits as those costs that would not have to be borne if the program were carried out under different sets of assumptions as to targeted groups, and so forth. Into their calculations were placed the direct, indirect and intangible costs associated with flu distress.

This chapter examines the theory and practice of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) in order to explore areas of disagreement--about such matters as technique, the interpretation of results and general philosophical implications of the basic cost-benefit apparatus. This overview and examination is important, since policy choices currently often require the elaborate trappings of cost-benefit justification. CBA and Neoclassical economics are symbiotically bound together by the fact that cost-benefit analysis could not be done without the foundation provided by Neoclassical methods. At the very least, CBA requires the fairly accurate measurement of three key variables: costs, benefits and the so-called social rate of discount. Costs, for the Neoclassical economist, are always opportunity costs in theory, but actual existing or estimated money costs in CBA practice. To be accurate, cost-benefit analysts need to know two sets of data, one ex ante and the other ex post. Several alternative approaches in economic theory are distinct from the Neoclassical paradigm, among them the Marxist, Institutionalist, neo-Ricardian and Austrian schools. When the cost-benefit analyst enters benefit(s) into the calculation, it has to be remembered that the numbers are either historical money prices or assumed valuations.

The article presents information on program evaluation. It deals not only with mathematical programming but with the assessment of the performance of social programs and policies. The types of questions considered in program evaluation are mentioned. Cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis are closely related to program evaluation.

A worksheet regarding sample cost analysis by a nonprofit organization is presented which appears in the book "Effective Fundraising for Nonprofits." The required information includes salaries and benefits, dues and publications, fees to independent contractors and consultants.

A definition of the term "capture rate analysis," which refers to an analysis that assumes retail centers attract expenditure levels relative to their size and location, is presented.

The article presents a case study on cost effective care services. The care of people with mental health problems provides an example. There are two mental health hostels in the area. One is provided by the National Health Services (NHS) and is staffed by psychiatric nurses supported by care staff. The other hostel is provided by the local authority and is staffed by a similar number of staff but without professional qualifications except for the manager. Both offer individual care plans but the unit cost of the NHS hostel is 30 per cent higher than the local authority because of the staff mix.

A definition of the term "cost vector" is presented. In a linear-programming problem, a row vector c refers to whose components are the objective function coefficients of the problem.

A definition of the term "crash cost" is presented. It refers to the estimated cost for a job based on its crash time.

A definition of the term "cost slope" is presented. It refers to the rate of cost change per unit of time duration of a project's work item.

A definition of the term "cost row" is presented. It refers to rows in a tableau that contains the reduced costs of the associated feasible bases.