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Chapter 4 of the book "The Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum and Environmental Engineers," by George V. Chillingar, Ryan Mourhatch and Ghazi D. Al-Qahtani is presented. It discusses the different measures in controlling corrosion in the most practical and economical way possible such as chemical inhibition, cathodic protection and material selection and design. It explores the commonly used methods to evaluate the degree of corrosion which includes visual inspection, chemical tests and microbial tests.

The article presents an encyclopedia entry for cytokines which refers to a large and heterogenous group of small polypeptides. Information is presented on general characteristics and function. The mechanism of action is discussed, as well as its potential to improve the therapy of many diseases. Inhibitors of cytokine action are discussed.

This article presents an encyclopedia entry about Catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT) and its inhibitors. COMT refers to an enzyme that chemically changes the transfer of the methyl group of S-adenosyl-L-methionine to one of the phenolic group of the catechol substrate. A comparison between soluble COMT and membrane-bound COMT is discussed.

A monograph for the pharmaceutical substance "PROPYLTHIOURACILUM/PROPYLTHIOURACIL" from the fourth edition of "The International Pharmacopoeia" is presented. Propylthiouracil is categorized as an antithyroid substance and described as colourless and odourless or pale cream-coloured crystals or a white or cream-coloured, crystalline powder. It is recommended that this substance be kept in a well-closed container, protected from light. Procedures for performing an identity test and assay of the substance are described.

A monograph for the pharmaceutical substance IOHEXOLUM/IOHEXOL from the fourth edition of "The International Pharmacopoeia," is presented. Iohexol is categorized as radiocontrast medium and described as a white to greyish amorphous powder. It is recommended that Iohexol be kept in a well-closed container protected from light. Procedures for performing an identity test and assay of the substance are described.

A monograph for the pharmaceutical substance "BUTYLHYDROXYANISOLUM/BUTYLATED HYDROXYANISOLE" from the fourth edition of "The International Pharmacopoeia" is presented. Butylated hydroxyanisole is categorized as an antioxidant and described as a white or almost white crystalline powder or a yellowish white solid, that is freely soluble in water and methanol R. It is recommended that this substance be kept in a tightly closed container. Procedures for performing an identity test and assay of the substance are described.

Information on a requirement for antioxidant nutrients from Chapter 8 of the book "Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition" is presented. Fruits and vegetables are considered an important dietary source of antioxidant nutrients. Research have shown that health benefits can be gained by some people with an increased risk of disease from supplements of antioxidant nutrients.

Information on the pro-oxidant activity of biological antioxidants from Chapter 8 of the book "Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition" is presented. Majority of biological antioxidants are antioxidants because when they accept an unpaired electron, the free radical intermediate formed has a long half-life in the normal biological environment. A chart is presented that shows systems altered during disease which reduce the risk of autoxidation.

Information on the need for biological antioxidants from Chapter 8 of the book "Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition" is presented. Although nitric oxide is a free radical, it is believed to be a beneficial metabolite and may react with lipid peroxides and function as an antioxidant. Integrated antioxidant defences protect tissues and are in balance with continuously generated reactive oxidant species (ROS) to maintain tissues metabolically intact most of the time.

A monograph for the pharmaceutical substance "ACETAZOLAMIDUM/ACETAZOLAMIDE" from the fourth edition of "The International Pharmacopoeia" is presented. Acetazolamide is categorized as a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor and described as an odourless, white, or almost white, crystalline powder, that is very slightly soluble in water. It is recommended that this substance be kept in a well-closed container. Procedures for performing an identity test and assay of the substance are described.

The article presents an encyclopedia entry for "irreversible antagonists." Unlike reversible ligands, irreversible ligands have negligible rates of offset thus receptor occupancy does not achieve a steady-state but rather increases with increasing time of exposure of the receptors to the ligand. When a receptor is occupied by an irreversible antagonist, it remains inactivated throughout the course of the experiment.

The article presents an encyclopedia entry about antioxidants. Antioxidants are substances that can eliminate free radicals form the body, thus preventing them from damaging important cell components. Any reduction in the level of antioxidants will cause chronic activation of immune cells and can cause damage to normal tissues.

Information on nutrients with an antioxidant role from Chapter 8 of the book "Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition" is presented. The possible benefits of antioxidants in disease prevention have been used as an argument for recommending increasing intakes of several nutrients above those derived by conventional methods. A definition of a dietary antioxidant according to members of the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council in the U.S. is presented.

Information on recommendations for future research about antioxidants from Chapter 8 of the book "Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition" is presented. Research is needed to understand the optimal plasma or tissue concentrations of nutrients and the mechanisms whereby micronutrients and minerals are reduced at the time of oxidant stress.

The article presents an encyclopedia entry for Schild analysis. It refers to a method for the quantification of potency. It involves a competitive antagonist and it is used to test whether the blockade of response by a molecule is competitive. The technique is based on the principle of antagonist-induced dextral displacement of a dose-response curve.

An encyclopedia entry for protein inhibitors of activated signal transducer and activator of transcription is presented.

A definition of the term "paraventricular nucleus" is presented. This nucleus contains neurons that produce neuropeptides which inhibit feeding when injected into the brain. The paraventricular nucleus is located adjacent to the third ventricle in the hypothalamus and has been identified as a satiety center.

This encyclopedia entry defines the term "non-selective monoamine reuptake inhibitor." These antidepressants inhibit the reuptake of noradrenaline and serotonin from synaptic cleft by blockade of the neurotransmitter transporters specific for noradrenaline and serotonin.

A definition of the term "neutral antagonist" is presented, which refers to an antagonist that binds equally to the active and inactive states of a G-protein-coupled receptor.

A definition of the term "L-NAME" is presented. It is a structural analogue of L-arginine and competes with L-arginine for NO-synthase that uses L-arginine as a substrate for the formation of nitric oxide. L-NAME, like L-NMMA, is a very effective nitric oxide-synthesis inhibitors, both in vitro and in vivo.

An encyclopedia entry for the term "ligand," which can be an antagonist or agonist that binds a receptor, is presented.

The article presents an encyclopedia entry for "kynurenine pathway." This pathway accounts for most of the non-protein tryptophan metabolism in most tissues. Kynurenic acid produced via kynurenine has been shown to be an antagonist at N-methyl D-aspartate, kainate and α-amino-5-methyl-3-hydroxy-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptors. It can block glutamate receptors in various species in distinguish subpopulations of kainate receptors.

The article presents an encyclopedia entry for "inverse agonist." An inverse agonist binds with higher affinity to the inactive state of a receptor thus altering the equilibrium in favour of there being more inactive receptors than active receptors present. An agonist response will be blocked by an inverse agonist by physically preventing the agonist from binding to the receptor, as well as turning off the basal cellular response.

This article presents an encyclopedia entry for the Gaddum method. It compares equiactive concentrations of agonist in the absence and presence of a concentration of non-competitive antagonist that depresses the maximal agonist response. The concentrations are compared in a double-reciprocal plot to yield the equilibrium dissociation constant of the non-competitive antagonist-receptor complex.

A definition of the term "XIAP" is presented, which refers to X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein. It also refers to X-linked IAP-like protein.

A definition of the term "poly(adenosine-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors" is presented. It refers to a large number of low molecular weight compounds that competitively inhibit PARP activity. Some examples of PARP inhibitors are: nicotinamide, benzamide and 3-aminobenzamide. Information is presented on the new generation of PARP inhibitors.

A definition of the term "p16" is presented. It refers to an inhibitor of the cyclin dependant kinases. It has an inhibitory effect on phosphorylation and the retinoblastoma gene RB/p105. Sometimes it also functions as a tumor suppressor gene.

A definition of the term "p27KIP1" is presented. It refers to a cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor and cell cycle regulator. In addition, it functions as a tumor suppressor.

An encyclopedia entry for "molecular and chemical inhibitors" is presented. It refers to specific inhibitors that are valuable tools in the study of signalling molecules and pathways. Chemical inhibitors, so-called molecular inhibitors can also be generated, in addition to specific chemical compounds. They could be a dominant negative variant of the molecule.

The article presents an encyclopedia entry for "BIRC4." It refers to a protein that is also known as human inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP)-like protein, X-linked IAP, X-linked IAP-like protein and apoptosis protein inhibitor 3.