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This bibliography lists and annotates almost 400 information reports, opinion papers, and summary papers dealing with freedom of information. Topics covered include the nature of press freedom and increased press efforts toward more open access to information; the press situation in many foreign countries, including France, Sweden, Communist China, India, Kenya, Cuba, Vietnam, and South Africa; the student press; the governmental "executive privilege" to withhold information; the role of the government publicist; the relationships of former presidents with the press; the accuracy of polling devices and the effect of their findings on the voting public; television coverage of political campaigns; criticisms of broadcast news; regulations of sex, violence, and children's programming on television; subscription television; film and book censorship; pressures on librarians; the press and the courts; Supreme Court decisions regarding obscenity; the influence of ethical and social responsibilities on advertising and selling practices; the economic effects of advertising; and the fluctuating fortunes of mass circulation magazines. (GW)

This annotated bibliography comprises books and articles on Southeast Asian refugee youth. It is divided into the following cross-referenced sections: (1) Adaptation and Acculturation; (2) Education; (3) Physical and Mental Health; (4) Unaccompanied Minors and Amerasian Youth; (5) Courtship and Marriage; (6) General Topics; (7) Journalism; and (8) Bibliographies. Some of the annotations are derived from abstracts included in several online data bases; others were abstracted specifically for this project. An author index is appended. (BJV)

Journalism on the agricultural frontier of the Old Northwest territory of the United States was shaped by a variety of cultural forces and environmental factors and took on diverse forms. Bridging the gap between the two cultural forms of written correspondence and printed news was a third form: the handwritten newspaper. Between 1844 and 1854 there were at least three handwritten newspapers published in the frontier town of Washington, Iowa. They were the "Domestic Quarterly Review," the "Washington Shark," and the "Quarterly Visitor." Though this genre was not peculiar to the agricultural frontier, the appearance of these particular papers can be understood in terms of their demographic and biographic contexts. During its first 15 years, Washington was without a printing press. The town had developed as an agricultural center rather than as a trade or business center, and because of its relative isolation, its population had remained modest in size. Possibly because of their relative isolation, the editors and their readers turned to the handwritten papers as one means of recreating the cultural world they had known. The editors, who were lawyers, politicians, and educators, may have tried to create a communications environment that could embody their own cultural and professional values and provide a mode of discourse to which they had grown accustomed. (Author/FL)

Since the former East German Communist State--the German Democratic Republic (GDR)--was incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany, the federal constitution has been valid throughout the whole of Germany, guaranteeing press freedom and ending press censorship in eastern Germany. In October 1989, the GDR had 39 daily newspapers (many published by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), 31 weekly papers and illustrated magazines, over 500 technical and specialized periodicals, and over 600 church papers and factory newspapers. A system of guidance and control by the SED rendered direct censorship unnecessary since, as a matter of course, the press published only what was acceptable to the SED. The period between October 1989 and October 1990 is seen in retrospect to have been a time of great experimentation and freedom for the press. Less than 2 years after the democratic transformation of the GDR, the structural shape of the West German press has become entrenched in most parts of the five new federal states: there are only a few supra-regional newspapers; the regional press has established a strong position; there is virtually no party press; and the press has become "concentrated" as mergers between publishing chains continue and as competition forces some newspapers and periodicals out of business. The large West German publishing concerns are likely to gain the edge on the market in eastern Germany. At the same time, foreign multi-media concerns have gained a foothold in the new federal states. This increasing globalization of the mass media (especially regarding former communist states) is of concern and interest to media students. (One table of data is included.) (RS)

Two leading black newspapers were very outspoken during the black American's struggle for equality following the Civil War of the 1860s. The Chicago-based "Conservator" and "Appeal" actively encouraged blacks to enter the nationwide power struggle among warring interests on their own behalf, and on a cultural level they attempted to elevate the race above the increasingly disappointing Republican party as a symbol of moral legitimacy. Staunchly defending bourgeois morality and propriety, the editors of both papers exemplified a secular piety, a return to morality through the creation of a secular culture rather than a return to the other-worldly religion of the previous generation. With the rise of racial political consciousness, black newspapers leaned toward reporting black news and away from editorial commentary, as illustrated by continued coverage of the lynchings and other injustices against blacks in the South. The promotion of a respectable middle-class life style and a concern about home life, education, and standards of conduct and morality were characteristic concerns of the rising coterie of black women journalists. As the small crusading newspapers were soon overshadowed by the mass press, their plans for the race were realized later by the professional politicians and advancement workers. The papers provided the rhetorical models to weld black Americans into a group with shared racial allegiance. (HTH)

The introduction of steam-powered ocean navigation in 1838 made possible the faster delivery of foreign news to United States newspaper offices and also gave rise to a new journalism genre--the transatlantic newspaper. Published on one side of the Atlantic and shipped by steamer for consumption on the other side, transatlantic newspapers compiled and condensed from all available sources the latest political, commercial, and shipping news. Although intended for private subscribers, they were important sources of foreign news for United States newspaper editors. Three such papers, all published in Liverpool, England, were "The European,""Charles Willmer's European Mail," and "Willmer & Smith's European Times." The last-named newspaper, published from 1843 to 1868, was the most influential and successful one. A comparison of the eight available copies of "The European Times" with the New York-based "Herald" and "Tribune" shows that between 1843 and 1848 more than 50% of the foreign news appearing in the two papers was taken verbatim (and usually without credit lines) from the European Times," suggesting that this newspaper had a significant impact on the foreign news presented by the two New York newspapers. (Author/FL)

The railroad and newspaper industries grew up simultaneously during the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s, coming together in the common effort of delivering newspapers by rapid trains. The newspaper trade literature from that era contains romantic accounts of the exploits of these trains, while comparable railroad trade literature infrequently acknowledges that newspaper publishers did indeed require special (unscheduled) high-speed trains to deliver their papers. The trains, chartered cheaply because of the fierce rivalry among railroads, extended the reach of many papers, especially morning dailies; and they heightened intercity competition, particularly for the smaller dailies. It seems possible that newspaper trains delivering big city morning dailies led to the proliferation of evening papers in outlying towns and small cities. The extent of the close working relationship between newspapers and railroads raises questions about newspaper objectivity. The fast-train experience also accents modern questions about societal effects, because modern newspapers are in the midst of a new expansion--this time electronic--of their potential distribution area. (Author/RL)

Clifford Glenn Christians' work in the area of media ethics education from 1976 through 1984 has influenced the way media ethics is taught to many college students today. This time period includes, among his other accomplishments, Christians' work on an extensive survey of how media ethics was taught in the late 1970s, his work on the Hastings Center monograph "Teaching Ethics in Journalism Education," and his creation in 1983 of the book "Media Ethics: Cases and Moral Reasoning," a textbook that is still used today. In 1984, important events in the teaching of media ethics occurred, events in which Christians was instrumental in one way or another. The effects of these events, which included the creation of a teaching workshop for educators and a journal for mass media ethics, are still visible today. (Contains 124 notes. Details on Christians' degrees and professional experience are attached.) (Author/RS)

The "American Review of History and Politics and General Repository of Literature and State Papers" ("American Review") was the first quarterly magazine published in the United States (1811-12). Its editor, Robert Walsh, was considered to be one of the leading men of letters of his era. Located in Philadelphia, the 26-year-old Walsh developed a publication to report regularly on the activities of governments in Europe, particularly in Great Britain. His quarterly was modeled after the popular British periodicals, such as the "Annual Register of England," and the articles concerned matters such as the political struggle between France and Great Britain and also gave attention to President James Monroe and the United States Congress. The publication also contained much nonpolitical material. Walsh used book reviews, which took the form of lengthy essays; speeches; and essays on history, society, geography, and science. Walsh wrote most of the material himself, but did use contributors when they made manuscripts available. Walsh was forced to cease publication of his magazine after only eight issues because of unfavorable political conditions (his pro-English position was unpopular in 1812), lack of contributors, and few subscribers. (Author/FL)

The 1925 Scopes trial and H. L. Mencken's published opinions about it provides an excellent example for both scholar and student alike to study issues of free speech, justice, publicity, public relations, and cutting journalistic writing. "Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes was a Mencken extravaganza; he gave the trial its derisive name and described it as "colossal buffoonery." A review of the developments of the trial shows that it is more complex than it is generally understood to be. It sprang from questionable purposes; all parties concerned held dubious motivations and goals. Dayton's townspeople were swindled by an eager desire for fame and greedy hopes for local prosperity from a public relations-backed publicity spectacle. The publicity generated a carnival-like atmosphere that made their town and themselves the laughingstock of the nation. Like the young and inexperienced teacher John Scopes, the people of Dayton were willing, ill-used pawns in an enterprise they did not understand. Nevertheless, the Scopes trial and Mencken's commentary provide valuable lessons 70 years after the event. Civil repression remains abundantly evident and pervasive whether from zealots of fundamentalism, McCarthyism, or modern political correctness and requires vigilant and vigorous opposition. The message of the Scopes trial endures as a monument to Mencken; his legacy provides a metaphor for all individuals to protect and preserve their right of expression--to speak, to write, and to think--against any threat to freedom. (Contains 15 references.) (TB)

As literature designed specifically to help young adults make appropriate career decisions, vocational guidance books explain what background, experiences, and personal traits are necessary to succeed in various careers. They are of interest to researchers because of the attitudes they reveal about journalism as a field. A review of 30 journalism guidebooks written during the first half of this century shows that the activities, needs, status, rewards, and environment of journalism were described in fairly consistent ways through mid-century. "A nose for news" appeared in Julian Ralph's 1903 highly autobiographical books as a necessary trait for journalists and thereafter in every major guidebook by both journalists and vocational advisers. Given the profession's chronically long, irregular hours and physical discomfort, and sometimes even danger, journalism demanded physical strength and good health (and sometimes sheer youth), persistence, and emotional stamina or "thick skin." On the other hand, those who persevered won thrills and excitement, although not high pay. Ralph criticized yellow journalism as corrupting and demoralizing, and he repudiated the view of journalism as a business. But he seemed more interested in using his own considerable experience to discourage those for whom journalism was not absolutely their forte than in attracting those who might be interested in its powerful public service mission. The message was also highly gendered. Women were steered toward the lighter tasks such as society news or more often steered out of the field altogether. (Contains a 58-item bibliography.) (TB)

A feminist newspaper, "The Revolution," published between 1868 and 1870 filled a void in the popular press of the time, proclaiming the necessity of equal rights for women in all areas of life. Owned by Susan B. Anthony and edited by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the paper repeatedly emphasized the importance of education of women. Four major themes were stressed: the necessity of opening men's colleges to women, the failure of wealthy women to fund women's colleges, the need for professional education of women, and the need for equal pay for women teachers. (LP)

A cultural history of the rise of black consumer magazine publishing is presented in this paper. It examines the interrelated elements in the development of shifts in the institutional support base of black magazines and shifts in the ethos or style of middle-class black life, as reflected in the magazines themselves. The paper takes as an example of early black commercial magazines the "Half-Century," published in Chicago from 1916 to 1925 by Anthony Overton, one of the leading black entrepreneurs of the segregated urban black communities. Overton's business career, publishing career, and the character and content of his magazine are examined in relation to the larger historical contexts of black life and black publishing to provide a cultural history of the early stages in the development of black consumer magazines. (Author/FL)

The Associated Press's claim that it is the oldest wire service in the United States (tracing its origin to formation of the New York City Associated Press in 1948) has been regularly sustained in journalism's history literature. This claim has been challenged by Alfred McClung Lee in his book "The Daily Newspaper in America," in which he contends that an obscure group of editors in upstate New York formed the pioneer wire service in the nation. This claim is supported by a collection of letters and documents at the Oneida Historical Society in Utica, New York, which places the founding of the New York State Associated Press in February and March of 1846--two months prior to the appearance of the earliest shared telegraphic dispatch in New York City newspapers and 26 months before the Associated Press's self-proclaimed birth. The documents reveal a developing wire service that altered its structure to accommodate the growing telegraphic network in upstate New York. When the line was completed only between Albany and Utica, the Utica editor express-mailed proofs of his telegraphic news columns to participating newspapers west of him. Later, when the line was complete from Albany to Buffalo, a meeting of editors in the region established a formal organization that bargained with the telegraph company for rates and handling of news dispatches and employed correspondents in Albany and New York City. (Appendixes contain copies of two dispatches from the early wire service.) (Author/FL)

A study was undertaken to describe the financial affairs of 49 Wisconsin newspapers enumerated in the 1860 United States Census of Products of Industry schedules. Specific information was sought concerning the cost of establishing a newspaper, the cost of materials and supplies, the number of employees and their pay, the value of the newspaper and job printing work produced, and the financial returns of the newspaper-publishing business. The data were then compared with similar data on all businesses in Wisconsin in 1860. The results revealed that the newspaper establishment was smaller than other businesses in all input and output measures except the number of employees. Newspaper publication and job printing done in association with publication were labor-intensive businesses; therefore, the payroll was the larger proportion of the total actual costs of operation. As production increased, however, the value of raw materials increased more than did payroll. The operating costs for doing newspaper publication and job work were greater than initial investment, and the costs of newspaper production increased per unit of total output at a greater rate than did job printing costs, indicating that newspaper production was relatively more expensive to do than job work. (FL)

This monograph reconstructs a theory of news, public opinion, and social control originally presented between 1904 and 1941 by Robert Ezra Park, a founder of the sociological study of mass communication and public opinion, and suggests that the theory is pertinent to contemporary journalists and scholars. Park's work is described as the basis of many ideas now popular in mass communication theory, including the news functions of surveillance, correlation, transmission, and entertainment; the conceptual scheme of agenda setting; the coorientational model that links the individual to a social system; and the techniques of precision and advocacy journalism. The sections of the monograph describe the relationship of Park's life to his theory, his theoretical framework and empirical methods, and the central elements in his theory. (AEA)

Although the suppression in 1917 of "The Masses," an influential Socialist magazine, has been depicted as an American tragedy, such a narrow interpretation ignores the bizarre, confused, often comic developments and episodes that attended the magazine's end. A reexamination of the demise of "The Masses" has been made to show the milieu in which the proceedings occurred. Using biographical materials and original, contemporary sources, this reanalysis has helped elucidate the federal government's wayward legal machinations, its position with regard to the magazine, the devil-may-care attitudes of the left-wing editors themselves, the hilarity of the first trial, and the war hysteria of the times. More than a tragic story of a small, powerless, left-wing publication silenced by the ruthless collusion of establishment forces, the premature end of "The Masses" is really a part of the larger history of a more youthful, less cynical America. (RL)

Mary Abigail Dodge, a Washington, D.C., correspondent before and after the United States Civil War, was one of the most acclaimed women journalists of the nineteenth century. Unknown today, Dodge wrote on politics, religion, and contemporary issues for newspapers and magazines and commented prolifically on the role of women in society. After feminist leanings as a young woman, she became increasingly conservative as she grew older. Her most celebrated articles appeared in the "New York Tribune" in 1877 and 1878 and attacked the efforts at civil service reform attempted under the administration of President Rutherford B. Hayes. Throughout her 40-year career, Dodge insisted on writing under the pseudonym, "Gail Hamilton." Dividing her life into two totally different spheres, she remained "Abby" to her family and refused to acknowledge in public that she was also "Gail," the famous literary figure. Well-known as a brilliant and witty conversationalist, she had wide-ranging contacts in literary and political circles. Her career illustrates that an able woman could carve a place for herself in Victorian journalism, but it also illuminates the self-doubts and insecurities of a woman trying to function in a man's occupation. (Author)

The Scopes trial of 1925 drew many reporters to Dayton, Tennessee, to report on what they expected would be the final blow to ignorant fundamentalism. They came with many preconceived notions about Dayton, the people of Dayton, William Jennings Bryan, and creationism. Close examination of pretrial, trial, and posttrial coverage in eight newspapers--the "New York Times,""New York American,""Chicago Tribune,""Washington Post,""Baltimore Sun,""Los Angeles Times,""Arkansas Gazette," and "Atlanta Constitution"--revealed that most reporters presupposed evolution as a scientific fact, the residents of Dayton as ignorant, and the Bible as highly errant. In reality, pro-evolution books were readily available in Dayton, while the key issue in the trial for Tennesseans was not free speech, but rather parental control over school curricula. The anti-evolution bill was seen as a way to forbid proselytizing for an as yet unproven evolutionary faith. The journalists covering the trial rarely tried to explain the complexity of the situation and the issue. The result was highly biased trial coverage that depicted Bryan as an inept prosecutor who saw himself as a type of Old Testament crusader. In general, the reporters who praised open-mindedness in their writing were themselves closed-minded when confronted with a world view opposed to their own. They incorrectly portrayed the evolution-creation debate as a battle between intelligence and stupidity and, as a result, the stereotypes they created persist today. (SRT)

This collection of abstracts is part of a continuing series providing information on recent doctoral dissertations. The 15 titles deal with the following topics: (1) Robert Kennedy and the American press; (2) objective reporting, muckraking, and the "New Journalism" from 1950 to 1975; (3) the coverage of welfare by the New York press; (4) the socialization of scientists in China as revealed in "People's Daily" editorials and in research papers published from 1949 to 1981; (5) the reporting of the Iran hostage crisis to Americans; (6) a model of journalism ethics instruction; (7) the success and failure of new consumer magazines in the United States from 1979 to 1983; (8) the elements that most determine newspaper subscribership; (9) journalism and the race question during the Progressive Era, 1900 to 1914; (10) science issues, journalism, and Q methodology; (11) contributions of German photojournalism from Black Star Picture Agency to "Life" magazine from 1933 to 1938; (12) the effect of newspaper endorsements and party identification on voting behavior; (13) freedom of the student press at Southern Baptist colleges and universities; (14) the federal government's investigation of the black press during World War II; and (15) perceptions by administrators, educators, and media professionals of factors determining mass communication curriculum development. (FL)

A study examined reports broadcast by ABC News between November 8, 1979 and December 7, 1979 in its series entitled "Crisis in Iran: America Held Hostage." Transcripts of approximately 50% of actual broadcasts were subjected to rhetorical critical analysis, from which the finding emerged that confusion was the predominant characteristic in ABC's description of events in Iran. President Jimmy Carter and the Ayatollah Khomeini were portrayed by ABC as potentially able to bring order to the situation but failing to do so. Americans were described as "frustrated" and "outraged," and their reactions shown as contrasting sharply with the Carter Administration's measured approach, were contrasted with the Carter Administration's measured approach, which was portrayed as being based on principles and high morals. The meaning of the crisis came to be summarized in ABC coverage as a test of the strength, image, and power of the United States. The analysis shows that events were considered for their symbolic value even more than for their pragmatic effects. Power became critically tied to image, and the possibility of American military action came to be viewed from the perspective of what message it would send to Iran and of the American unity it would reflect. Such attempts to label events based upon predisposed ideas, expectations, and limited knowledge prevent Americans from seeing the realities of given situations. (Eighty-five notes are included.) (SG)

Examines the impartiality of Thomas Fleet, Sr.'s "Boston Evening Post" during the years leading up to the Revolutionary War, a period during which patriots put pressure on newspapers take their side. Reviews data illustrating the paper's even-handed dealing with issues concerning Patriots and Loyalists. (TB)

This directory of women and minority men in academic journalism and mass communication lists the names, degrees, teaching experience, and specialties of over 400 teachers. The directory is a result of national surveys conducted in 1972 and 1974 with the support of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Status of Women of the Association for Education in Journalism. The directory is intended to aid administrators and search committees seeking prospective faculty members, and it should also be useful in selecting guest speakers and visiting seminar participants. (RB)

This bibliography lists suggested readings about blacks, race relations, and the media to supplement conventional categories common to most journalism curricula. It was designed to meet a perceived shortage of instructional materials on the subject, a shortage that does not actually exist. Citations are organized under the topics of general race relations; history of blacks; black mass media; the effects, criticism, and portrayal of minorities and the mass media; and the employment of blacks in the mass media. (MKM)

Amos Kendall's place in journalism history rests largely on his service as a journalist turned government official in the two administrations of President Andrew Jackson. Historians have claimed that Kendall was an influential journalist of the "partisan press" era, but they have provided little documentation. That documentation has been provided through an examination of events leading up to Jackson's election of 1828. The performance of Amos Kendall as newspaper editor of the "Argus of Western America" (Frankford, Kentucky) during the elections of 1824 and 1828 reveals the following: (1) Henry Clay's early patronage of Amos Kendall meant that, although the two men had different political philosophies, Kendall actually supported Clay and John Quincy Adams against Jackson in 1824. (2) Clay's financial pressures on Kendall helped cause the latter to switch his political allegiance to Jackson in 1827. (3) In 1828 Kendall helped ensnare the Adams-Clay coalition in politically embarrassing situations by revealing some of his own surreptitious maneuverings against Clay's opponents when he had been "in the service" of Clay. (RL)

In 1921, during the course of a news conference, President Warren G. Harding misinterpreted the provisions of one of the treaties then under consideration by delegates to the Washington Disarmament Conference. His error was corrected in a few hours, but this incident was blown out of proportion by those who were convinced that Harding was an inept president. It was said that this misstatement led directly to the use thereafter of written questions in presidential news conferences and that Harding was ordered (by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes) to stop taking oral questions from reporters. This version is still finding its way into journalism and mass communications texts and illustrates the difficulty of ascertaining historical truth in the face of conflicting evidence. In fact, Harding had started requiring written questions three weeks earlier, not due to any ineptness on his part, but because so many correspondents were accredited to the Conference and this was the only means of adequately dealing with them. The Conference incident was the first major stumbling block in Harding's up-to-then good relations with the press. He quickly recovered and continued to take both written and oral questions from reporters--at times he even allowed himself to be quoted directly. (Author)

A comparison of photographs in four German magazines published from 1926 to 1933 with photographs appearing in "Fortune" and "Life" from 1930 to 1938 reveals specific patterns and techniques by German photographers, who later emigrated to the United States, that served as models for "Life" and for subsequent American magazines. The analysis of this evolution of the photo essay consisted of identifying the form or layout used (photomontages, regular features, single picture pages, multiple page series photographs, and use of graphic elements), and the styles of individual photographers (based on credit lines under photographs). The cosmopolitan tendencies of the Weimar years in Germany and the political upheaval prior to World War II helped to create a new context for the flow of photographers, picture editors, picture agencies, and ideas about the form and content of contemporary photojournalism across national boundaries. German photographers coming to the United States found that they could adapt their styles to the evolving patterns of American photojournalism, and their work contributed to the development of the photo essay in the United States. But the form, content, and social practice of photojournalism that evolved in Germany in the 1920s was recast after 1933 into ideological themes more appropriate to the American cultural context. (RL)

Compiled in response to the need for more information on the differences between the press systems of the United States and the Soviet Union, this bibliography contains 240 entries. Consisting of newspaper articles, journal articles, books, and pamphlets, the bibliography provides an overview of the different journalistic philosophies of the two nations, offers an introduction to research on the Soviet press, and lists resources for instruction in international communication. Specific subjects covered in the entries include advertising in the Soviet Union, censorship and freedom of information, and investigative reporting. (HTH)