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This volume contains an introduction and four policy option papers that explore key issues affecting the economy and state options to address the issues within the context of the U.S. workplace. "Introduction" (David Bedford, Evelyn Ganzglass) discusses the issues identified in the first phase of the governors' initiative on Excellence at Work and outlines a state action agenda. "State Strategies for Manufacturing Modernization" (Brian Bosworth) provides a framework for considering state government policies to encourage modernization among small and medium-sized manufacturing companies and promotes a review of state policies and programs for helping train workers and managers. "State Strategies for Building Market-Based Workforce Preparation Systems" (Robert Sheets, David Stevens) argues that the challenge for states in the 1990s is to refine and integrate the use of various performance standard systems and other related market incentives into comprehensive market-based workforce preparation systems. "The Flexible Workplace: Implications for State Employment Policy and Regulations" (Barney Olmsted, Stephen Trippe) discusses the changing relationship between employers and employees and the demands of workers for more flexible working conditions to accommodate family and other responsibilities. "Health Benefits in a Changing Economic Environment" (John Luehrs) discusses the ways in which concerns about health care delivery and financing have affected the U.S. workplace. An index is provided. (YLB)

The six articles in this issue attempt to answer questions that have arisen due to the increase in programs that cross existing or traditional age barriers in literacy education. They draw upon recent and current research and practice both in the United Kingdom and the United States. "Family Literacy: An Intergenerational Approach to Education" (Sharon Darling) describes and comments on some current models for family literacy programs in the United States. "Intergenerational Literacy Intervention: Possibilities and Problems" (Peter Hannon) starts from research into school reading attainment and offers a framework for parental involvement in reading acquisition. "Workforce Education, Family Literacy, and Economic Development" (Thomas Sticht) places family literacy in the context of the needs of the work force and examines the interrelationship of literacy acquisition in these different areas. "Parent Involvement in Family Literacy: An Anti-Poverty Perspective" (Ray Phillips) traces the development of parent involvement initiatives against the background of broader social and policy change in the British/European context. "Techniques in Family Literacy" (Keith Topping) looks at specific techniques for parental intervention in basic skills acquisition by children, including paired reading, cued spelling, and paired writing. "A Typology of Family and Intergenerational Literacy Programmes: Implications for Evaluation" (Ruth Nickse) explores issues of evaluation by seeking to establish a typology of family literacy programs. (YLB)

One of a series of productivity primers examining the interrelationship among vocational education, productivity, and economic development, this volume consists of seven occasional papers on economic development and productivity. Included in the collection are the following papers: "The Real Supply-Side Economics," by Anthony P. Carnevale; "Reindustrialization and Vocational Education," by Amitai Etzioni; "Vocational Education and Reindustrialization," by Rupert E. Evans; "Work, Employment, and the New Economics," by Melvin Feldman; "Vocational Education as a Participant in the Economic Development Enterprise: Policy Options for the Decade Ahead," by Leonard A. Lecht; "The Reindustrialization of the United States: Implications for Vocational Education Research and Development," by Herbert E. Striner; and "Improving Productivity in the Work Force: Implications for Research and Development in Vocational Education," by Dennis J. Sullivan. (MN)

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) provide clear targets and areas of focus for international organizations such as the World Bank. At a conceptual level, to reduce poverty and hunger, to improve education and health indicators, and to promote gender equality and sustainable development, countries can either increase the resources they allocate to these objectives, or increase the efficiency with which they use their available resources. The four papers presented in this study deal with the second option: increasing the efficiency of countries, and of decentralized entities within countries, in producing good outcomes with their available resources. The first two papers "Measuring and Explaining Country Efficiency in Improving Health and Education Indicators" and "Measuring and Explaining the Impact of Productive Efficiency on Economic Development" use country-level data to analyze the efficiency of countries for improving health, education, and GDP outcomes. The last two papers "Reaching Health and Education Targets in Argentina: A Provincial-Level Analysis" and "Development Targets and Efficiency in Improving Education and Health Outcomes in Mexico's Southern States" use within-country data on health and education from Argentina and Mexico to look at the same issues. Together, the four papers suggest that apart from increasing inputs, it is necessary to improve efficiency to reach the MDGs. Includes 18 notes and an extensive number of tables, figures, and boxes. Each paper contains references. (BT)

The major contention of this paper is that the emphasis in developing countries on non-formal alternatives to formal schooling can be related to a major reconstruction now underway of the concept of economic development. The earlier concept of development is defined as economic growth reflected in increased gross national product, principally through industrialization. A number of variables which need to be incorporated, however, are left out of this economically based model: humanitarian and survival needs, nationalism, the growing aspirations of people in developing nations, the limits of industrialization, the role of rural development, employment as a problem and goal in its own right, and an imperative for decentralized planning. In the midst of crisis characterized by greater demand, higher costs, wastage in sequential schooling, and a growing educated unemployed, education must cater to the demands of modernization: basic literacy, manpower training, and a professional elite. The shortcomings that have required a new look at development and the shortcomings in education suggest a way of establishing priorities for implementing non-formal education. Special attention should be given to low-cost, short-duration, need-based, aspiration-accommodating, employment-linked, decentralized, and highly distributive education. Further, wider use of local resources, established oral traditions, and an immediate reward structure are features to consider. (JH)

The three essays in this discussion paper present ways of structuring the concept of non-formal education. "Toward a Contextual Definition of Non-Formal Education" isolates three primary sub-systems: organizational, human, and curricular. Within these subsets non-formal education is differentiated from formal education by a more loosely integrated structure capable of accommodating the three subsets. "Non-Formal Education: Problems and Promises" looks at institutions anthropologically and defines non-formal education as a planned instructional design using both overt and convert procedures in a more flexible environment to teach goals determined by regulated policy. Using this definition the essay discusses non-formal education's implications for development aid, its potential for achieving developmental goals, and its inherent problems. "An Operational Approach to the Definition of Non-Formal Education" reviews the following contextual elements: changing development goals, limited resources, underdeveloped populations, government and accounting agencies, formal schooling, accepted reward structures, and communications media. A pragmatic definition reflecting the needs posed by these elements is that non-formal efforts are outside the formalized, hierarchical structure of the graded school system, yet, are deliberately planned. Their "non-formality" resides in their locational and organizational aspects rather than their purposes, pedogogy, or status. (JH)

The two essays that make up this discussion paper explore the cultural implications for non-formal education. "Modes of Intervention" examines the typical fashion in which nations have aided the development of other nations through technical assistance. This mode comes from the assumption that a modern nation has special knowledge to assist a developing one. A different mode for intervention is suggested, however, one that requires the intervening nation to explore the institutions that already function within a society and build on them toward development goals. "Educational History and Non-Formal Education: A Methodological Strategy" sets out to articulate an historical study of education and to organize the inquiry along the lines of a search for similarities between educational arrangments and extra-educational variables. Education is cast as a dependent variable in a system where change in techno-economic arrangements generates change in social organization and in ideology. A typology is developed that matches primitive, modern, and traditional social units with techno-economic arrangements, social organization, and ideology, and with educational activities (enculturation, skill transfer, and knowledge transfer). This typology, delineated as a format for a cultural history of education or as a step toward an anthropology of education, is considered remarkable in that it does not automatically reveal a particular categorization for non-formal educational activities. (JH)

Forestry planning is essential if the global trend toward deforestation is to be reversed. World forest trends, although often based on inaccurate or misleading information put out by national governments, indicate that the area of land covered with closed forests has decreased from about 25% in 1950 to about 20% in the 1970s. Major causes of deforestation include logging, spread of agriculture, and collection of firewood. Among the economic consequences of uncontrolled deforestation are forest-product scarcity, rising dependence on imported forest products, increasing construction costs, inflation, soaring firewood and fuel prices, health deterioration due to lack of heat and warm food, shortage of paper, and increased flooding in watershed areas. Challenges facing world forestry include putting a halt to deforestation and meeting elementary fuel and wood needs of developing nations. Countries which have succeeded in reforesting their depleted areas include China and South Korea. In addition, other developing nations are beginning to recognize the urgent need for reform of forestry policies and are developing strategies to improve timber management practices. An example of a state which is experimenting with community forestry is Gujarat, India. (DB)

This resource paper on spatial allocation analysis is part of a series designed to supplement undergraduate geography courses. Spatial allocation analysis is the study of the distribution of economic flows and transactions over geographical space. This account represents a general introduction to the process and its application in geographical inquiry. It proceeds by examining a series of models of spatial allocation systems, where the term "model" signifies an idealized representation. Under examination is a transportation problem model that includes (1) a set of geographically distinct points or regions which produce some commodity, (2) a set of geographically distinct points or regions which consume the same commodity, and (3) a given unit cost for transportation of the commodity from any producer to any consumer. In examining the flow of commodities, constraints are observed so that no supplier's total productive capacity is exceeded and all consumers' demands are met. Attention is focused first on the purely computational properties of the simple transportation model, then on the theoretical underpinnings of the model, and lastly on a variety of important, formal generalizations from the model. (Author/DE)

This paper discusses recent histories of labor shortages in Singapore, Japan, and several western European countries. Emphasis is upon the economic effects of severe shortages of labor. Fearing that these shortages would seriously handicap further economic progress, many people in these countries have advocated large-scale immigration or increased population growth or both. It is the author's conclusion that the existence of a labor shortage is not a valid ground for encouraging either population growth or immigration. The series of which this publication is a part is intended to increase understanding of the interrelationships between population growth and socioeconomic and cultural patterns throughout the world, and to communicate this understanding to scholars and policy makers. (Author/RM)

Born out of more than 20 years of working within international information development and exchange projects, conferences, and consultancies, this collection of papers offers insight into the many issues involved in the international exchange of information and ideas. The information contained in this work helps to build a bridge between the literatures of developing countries and those of industrialized countries, as they attempt to understand the relationship between economic, social and cultural developments and the applications of information in its infinite forms and variations. The book is divided into six sections: (1) Information and National Development; (2) Human Resource Networking; (3) Problem Solving and Information Counseling; (4) Information Policies; (5) Education, Training and Professional Development; and (6) The American Transnational Corporation and Information. Eleven figures supplement the text. A 20-page list of further readings is provided at the end of the book, as well as name and subject indexes. (AEF)

A key question to ask in determining whether a solution will be found to the current worldwide destruction of plant and animal life is whether people will learn to reconcile effectively the demands of environmental conservationists and developers. Probably the most immediate threat which ecological destruction poses to human welfare is shrinkage of the plant genepools available to agricultural scientists, farmers, and foresters. Additional problems are the extinction of species with economic or medical value and the ecological disturbances which result from the loss of any species. Demands for rapid economic and social development in Third World nations present particular problems for long-term environmental conservation. Unless national and international economic systems provide more opportunity for advancement, the dispossessed will naturally molest legally protected lands, trees, and animals. Environmental planners in all nations and foreign aid agencies in developed nations must incorporate concern for preservation of biological diversity into their policy decisions. A start toward the creation of needed ecological protectorates was made in 1978 when UNESCO designated 144 areas in 35 nations as part of a global network of Biosphere Reserves. The conclusion is that developers and conservationists must cooperate to develop policies to keep the biosphere in good order, slow the population growth, and satisfy people's basic needs. (Author/DB)

This report reviews the problems of protecting nature in a heavily industrialized democracy such as the United States. Factors contributing to the establishment of protected areas in the United States are traced from the creation of Yellowstone National Park in 1872 to the present. Arguments in defense of wilderness areas consider nature as: (1) a reservoir of normal ecological processes, (2) a sustainer of biological diversity, (3) a formative influence on the national character, (4) a church, (5) a guardian of mental health, and (6) an educational asset in developing environmental responsibility. Diverse agencies, programs, and efforts exist at all levels. The National Park Service, the United States Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and the National Wilderness Preservation System function on the federal level. Coastal zone management and land use laws protect natural areas on the state level, city and county parks serve as protected areas on local levels, and private organizations such as the Sierra Club also contribute to wilderness preservation. Problems arise from the conflict between economic development and nature preservation, and the popularity of nature areas which leads to their destruction. Programs in Japan, Australia, New Zealand, East Africa, Europe, the Soviet Union, and Canada are also described. (KC)

Dimensions of the deteriorating world food situation are examined. Prepared for the congressional Subcommittee on Science Research and Technology and the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Scientific Planning and Analysis, the document focuses on the need to improve living standards of the rural poor in developing nations. The document is presented in nine sections. Section I presents an overview of agricultural development in poor nations and calls for worldwide cooperation to increase prosperity. Section II evaluates attempts to solve world food problems through synthetic foods, mechanized farming, and increased food production in the United States. Section III outlines a strategy to increase food production by introducing farmers to modern methods and providing financial assistance. Sections IV and V characterize economic needs and aspirations of developing nations. Section VI outlines agricultural research needs. Section VII reviews national and international programs dealing with agricultural research and development. Section VIII suggests how the United States can improve its agricultural research efforts. The final section concludes that hunger and poverty can be effectively reduced through technological and financial cooperation between developing and developed nations. (DB)

The monograph explores basic needs of all human beings and considers various patterns of growth and development toward meeting these needs on a sustainable basis. The purpose of the study is to improve knowledge of analytical studies, research results, and financial assistance policies among personnel of the Agency for International Development (AID) and to stimulate discussion between AID personnel and other interested persons. The report is global in scope but the discussion is general and there are few references to specific countries. Chapter I presents a framework for analysis of the basic human needs approach. The framework concentrates on establishing an explicit hierarchy of objectives based on numbers of poor individuals now and in the future, intangible goals, birth rates, material well-being, economic planning, income, production, resources, and employment. Chapter II explores policies that might be suitable in various settings for meeting basic needs in areas of productive employment, income, private goods, and public services. Chapter III analyzes channels through which various policies would affect growth rates of gross national product. A final section suggests that the development process should provide for sustainable improvements over time in the well-being of those who are too poor to satisfy their basic human needs. The conclusion is that the basic needs approach provides a workable framework to link needs, income, employment, production, and supply objectives. (DB)

This study reports on the extent to which project designs of World Bank-supported primary education projects in Sub-Saharan Africa take into account the school characteristics that are necessary for effective education. Using a conceptual framework that summarizes research findings on the characteristics of effective schools, the report presents an analysis of how well 26 project preparation documents incorporate community support, supervision, teacher development, textbooks, and facilities into their designs. Based on the analysis, the report draws conclusions about the potential effectiveness of the projects' planned interventions in improving student learning, and it recommends changes in the way the World Bank assists governments in planning and implementing educational reform. Chapters include: (1) "Background and Introduction"; (2) "Methodology"; (3) "The Characteristics of Effective Schools"; (4) "World Bank Lending to Improve the Quality of Primary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa"; and (5) "Implications and Recommendations." (Contains 5 annexes and approximately 240 references.) (Author/EH)

This document contains 18 policy, synthesis, and analysis papers and foreign experts' contributions examining the following topics: challenges facing vocational education and training (VET) in the Czech Republic; the main aims and strategies of reforming the country's VET system; the role of VET in transforming the republic into a learning society in the Czech Republic and elsewhere in Central and Eastern Europe; reform strategies and policies that have been used in the West; and the Czech Republic's policy options with regard to reform of its VET system. The following papers are included: "Education for Prosperity: Towards a Learning Society"; "Curriculum Assessment/Certification/Quality Assessment/Teacher Training" (Bohumil Janys); "Management/Financing/Social Partnership" (Jaromir Coufalik); "Legislation/Research and Development/Internationalisation" (Jan Kovarovic); "Curriculum, Assessment, and Certification" (Pavel Petrovic et al.); "Teacher Training" (Jana Svecova et al.); "Management" (Frantisek Bacik et al.); "Financing" (Igor Hartman et al.); "Legislation" (Jaromir Krejci et al.); "Social Partnership" (Jan Hrabek et al.); "Quality Assessment" (Michal Karpisek et al.); "Research and Development/Internationalisation" (Jana Hendrichova et al.); "International Developments in the Area of Curriculum Development" (David Parkes); "Assessment and Certification of Vocational Qualifications" (Olivier Bertrand); "Qualification Structure and Quality Control in Vocational Education and Training" (Ben Hovels); "Preparing Educational Leaders to Implement Reform: Lessons from Eastern Europe" (David Oldroyd); "Management of Education: An Overview of the International Context" (Gabor Halasz); "The Financing of Vocational Education and Training in Europe: An Examination of Recent Developments" (Jean-Pierre Jallade); and "The Involvement of Social Partners in the Development of Vocational Education and Training" (Jean-Marie Luttringer). Appendices contain a brief description of the Phare VET reform program in the Czech Republic and 161 references. (MN)

This publication contains ten papers designed to show relationships between job creation and vocational education. Information is presented regarding three areas: (1) national and state perspectives of job creation, (2) examples of how specific vocational education disciplines impact in the job creation process, and (3) case studies of job creation activities in three communities. The first paper, Vocational Education's Role in Job Creation and Job Development, presents a national perspective of job creation, while the second, Job Creation and Vocational Education Leadership, emphasizes the need for leadership at the state level to facilitate the job-creation process. Small Business Development and Job Creation provides a rationale for small business as a primary source of job creation activities. The Role of CETA (Comprehensive Employment and Training Act) in Job Creation focuses on CETA programs which are designed to prepare people for the work force. The next three papers concern the impact on job creation of three specific vocational areas: health care industry, special needs population, and new and emerging vocational home economics. The final three papers are case studies developed to highlight activities within communities that affect employment. The communities are Staples, Minnesota, and Urbana-Champaign and Decatur/Macon County, Illinois. (YLB)

This volume of papers is based upon a lecture series given at Western Michigan University in the winter of 1973 by eminent economists concerning economic theory and policy as they relate to providing public education. Papers cover: the evaluation of manpower programs; the integration of higher education into the wage-board system; how much and what kinds of education for economic development; the educational investment process; and methods of finance, and the organization and administration of local schools. (MJM)

Helping undergraduate college geography students understand the processes and forces which, in the name of modernization, continue to intensify a world spatial disequilibrium in the relations of people and resources is the purpose of this resource paper. It presents current ideas in social science research on modernization and development with particular reference to underdeveloped countries, especially the characteristics of underdevelopment and the geography of modernization. Part I deals with characteristics of underdevelopment and some frequently propounded views of the nature of underdevelopment and development. Part II examines causes and consequences of underdevelopment, especially external and internal causes and urban and national development in the postindependence era. Part III describes research about modernization in the underdeveloped world carried out by geographers. The paper ends with a review of findings and suggestions for kinds of research and research institutions that will aid, not hinder, Third World development. Many illustrative figures and tables and a comprehensive bibliography are included. (Author/ND)

Selected papers on higher education and development that were presented to the Golden Jubilee Celebrations of the Association of Indian Universities are presented. Topics include development and underdevelopment, recent trends in development strategy, and India in the 1980's and 1990's. Contents include the following: "Development and Underdevelopment: Kerala and Uttar Pradesh," by B. K. Nayar; "Higher Education and Development," by A. B. Shah; "Development and Underdevelopment," by Durgadas Roy; "Notes on Some Aspects of the Strategy of Economic Development in India," by Ranjit Sau; "Anti-Development on a World Scale," by Narindar Singh; "Transfer of Technology, Development, and Underdevelopment," by P. V. Indiresan; "Higher Education and National Development," by J. N. Kapur;"Education and Development Strategy," by S.C. Goel; "Higher Education and Development Changing Strategies in the Indian Context," by J. Veeraraghavan; "Some Reflections on the Strategy of Human Resource Development in Developing Economies," by P. D. Shrimali; "Education and Social Change," by B. V. Shah; "Recent Trends in the Strategy of Educational Development," by Satish Chandra; "Agricultural Sciences and Higher Education in India," by G. Rangaswami; "Education and Dynamics of Development," by Gunvant B. Shah; "The Indian University in the 80's and 90's," by Amrik Singh; "India in the 80's and 90's," by P. G. Deo; "Higher Education in 1980's and 90's in India," by N. V. Subba Rao; and "India in 1980's and Relation to Higher Education," by G. R. Mhaisekar. (SW)

The first paper aims to give a certain relativity to the significance of education and to indicate the limitations of any educational effort. The thinking underlying the current approach to the economic development of native communities and reserves is discussed as well as the implications and consequences of such thinking. It is argued that the success of any educational effort depends on the overall employment situation at the level of the reserve or at any level for that matter. Utilizing the concept of a "natural resource system", which combines the analysis of ecological, economic, and social variables into a coherent framework, the second article delineates the process that changed wild rice from a subsistence staple crop to what will be a heavily capitalized agricultural industry. It is shown that the Indians, who were the original exploiters of this natural resource, have lost more and more of their control over the economic activity, and that this diminishing control is not due to any cultural inabilities on the part of the Indians. Rather it is shown that the Euro-Americans have assumed more and more control over wild rice because of the vast financial institutions which have encouraged this development, from the Hudson's Bay Company in earlier days to major food industries today. It is argued that the "developments" in the wild rice industry are in fact detrimental to the interests of the Indian population, and that the changes in this industry in effect contribute to the development of underdevelopment on Indian reserves. (AUTHOR/NQ)

Directed to educators in both formal and non-formal systems, policy makers, program planners, and others concerned with social and economic development, this preliminary paper reports a study which examines the role of women and families in social and economic development with the purpose of presenting a family ecological framework for identifying the competencies needed by families to facilitate their social and economic functioning, which would in turn provide a basis for assessing needs and resources for determining non-formal education programs supportive to social and economic development at community and national levels. The report is based on a distillation and summary of primary information (discussions with university colleagues and international scholars), analysis of a considerable body of data which has been assembled and catalogued (published research reports, monographs, and policy statements prepared by governmental and non-government agencies), and a series of group discussions in the United States and Thailand. The four chapters are entitled (1) Family and Development, (2) Contributions of the Family to Human Resource Development: Non-Market Activities of Families, (3) Role and Status of Women in Social and Economic Development, and (4) Summary and Implications for Non-Formal Education Program Planners. A bibliography follows each chapter. (WL)