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This dissertation investigated the development of stereotypes surrounding public school children in Brazil, primarily focusing on poor students of Afro descent. It explored how these stereotypes have influenced education policymaking and examined the efforts of Darcy Ribeiro and Paulo Freire to challenge these prevailing notions. Employing archival research to trace the historical creation of stereotypes about Black Brazilians from impoverished backgrounds since the country's declaration of independence, the study delved into historical accounts and perspectives offered by various political actors--policymakers, educators, families, and society in general. The aim was to understand how ideas and images about poor and Black students have been constructed and impacted the education policy process in the country. The findings revealed that historically, governing elites associated vulnerable populations with societal problems such as crime, diseases, and idleness. Consequently, different policies were designed and implemented, predominantly proposing work as a solution to restrain Black and poor populations. For children, schools emerged as spaces where they should be disciplined and tailored to meet the needs of the workforce. To understand the historical construction of these stereotypes, I conducted interviews with education stakeholders to assess the persistence of these ideas and the efforts schools make, or fail to make, to counteract the influence of negative social constructions on public school students. The research also delved into Ribeiro's and Freire's perspectives on public education--how they attempted to translate their theories into practice, and the complexities encountered during the design and implementation of their policies in the state of Rio de Janeiro and the city of Sao Paulo, respectively. This occurred during a pivotal period: the redemocratization of Brazil. As influential figures in policymaking, they faced resistance from those adhering to traditional narratives reinforcing stereotypes. Archival research and interviews with individuals who worked with Ribeiro and Freire in the design and implementation of their policies were central to understanding the challenges they faced in attempting to transform public schools in Brazil. The findings underscore the intricate connections among historical narratives, policy formulation, and the persistent endeavor to reshape the educational landscape for marginalized communities in Brazil. This research contributes to unraveling the dynamics of challenging stereotypes in education and delves into the transformative potential inherent in policy interventions. By focusing on Brazilians who are most reliant on public policies, the study not only informs the academic discourse but also provides insights for policies that can meaningfully impact the lives of those historically underserved. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The modern college instructor in the United States faces several unique dilemmas due to students' increased access to information via the internet and social media, increased polarization across the nation, and increased unrest resulting in more experiences impacting mental health. As such, modern instructors are faced with the challenge of balancing the hard reality of honestly teaching about society's history and current issues with optimistic realism for progress already made and progress yet to come. This research examines how using focused, optimistic pedagogical approaches, based in learning theory, can positively influence students' outlook on the world and their place in it by using pre-testing and post-testing to gauge pedagogical success. Seven unique pedagogical approaches are developed and tested to aid instructors in this endeavor. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The dissertation focuses on the Chinese literacy experiences of different generations of Thai Chinese families in Thailand, spanning periods characterized by varying ideologies toward the Chinese language, which have either constrained or facilitated its acquisition. This qualitative work examines how evolving national policies and international politics have shaped language ideologies and the valuation of Chinese literacy within these families. The research began by investigating documents and conducting interviews with Thai Chinese individuals who attended Chinese schools during the politically turbulent period of the 1940s to 1960s when the Chinese language was unwelcome and treated as a threat. Then, it traces the subsequent generations in these families and the shifting policies up to present-day Thailand, where Chinese is highly regarded for its economic benefits. The central question is: How do different generations of Thai Chinese families in Thailand experience historical changes in policies and ideologies around literacy and language? Through narrative inquiry and ethnography within the language ecology framework, this research underscores the interplay of language ideologies, individual experiences, local dynamics, and global politics. The intergenerational lens reveals the power dynamics that time plays in personal and familial language acquisition amid globalization and neoliberalism. By exploring intergenerational narratives and memories, the research demonstrates the loss of heritage literacy and the changing ideologies regarding the valuation of Chinese across generations. It also reveals the promising power of individuals, families, and communities to resist dominant language pressures while safeguarding their unique heritage language and culture. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The sweeping changes brought forth by the pandemic led me to reshape my dissertation in order to develop non-academic skills that will allow me to better meet the shifting challenges of our times. Mine is a non-traditional project focused on the application of technologies and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (the process by which people build mental representations from words and pictures) to the field of remote instruction. My work is a bilingual lesson on "corrales de comedias," open-air theaters dominating the cultural landscape of the Spanish empire during the 16th and 17th centuries. It is comprised of an animated introduction and three chapters, as well as several knowledge check and scenario-based learning activities that touch upon the historical evolution of these theaters, the actors and institutions involved in its growth, the customs and complications of an incipient entertainment industry, and its impact on the development of the dramatic production of the Spanish Golden Age. I will broadly describe the project and its theoretical foundations in the introduction. Then, I will explain the research process behind writing the lesson and some of the problems I encountered. Finally, I will reflect on the rationale behind the visual style of my lesson in terms of affective quality, instructional design, and historical accuracy. The appendices contain the lesson script, the results of the qualitative and quantitative evaluations completed by learners in the pilot study, as well as a discussion of the issues raised by learners and how they were resolved. Links to the most current version of the lesson, both in English and in Spanish, can be found in my personal digital portfolio: www.chechesilveyra.com. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The Executive Functions are a collection of higher order brain functions. Nevertheless, there exists much confusion on what they are and how they function. This dissertation explores the history, theory, and application of the Executive Functions as they apply to school psychologists. Topics such as the current leading theories of the Executive Functions, tools used in assessment, how to communicate results, and current interventions and accommodations are presented. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This dissertation study utilized an author-researcher-developed multistage university technology transfer capital efficiency model to evaluate university technology transfer relative capital efficiencies and trends via nonparametric and parametric analyses. Five research milestones were achieved. In completing research goal one, the researcher-author conducted an extensive literature review of key federal policy measures that contributed to the gestation and evolution of university technology transfer from the agrarian economy of the 18th and 19th centuries; to the industrialization economy of the first two-thirds of the 20th century; and to the knowledge-based economy of the latter third of the 20th century through the present. In achieving research goal two, the author-investigator developed a new four-stage university technology transfer capital efficiency model to allow for a more fine-grained representation and analysis of university technology transfer processes and complexities. This model had three major variants. To attain research goal three, the researcher-investigator measured university technology transfer capital efficiencies at the aggregate system, joined network, and independent stage levels from 2010 to 2020. Furthermore, year-to-year capital efficiency changes for each university were measured by performing Malmquist total factor productivity index decomposition for 10 consecutive year-to-year pairs between 2010 and 2020. To fulfill research goal four, TreeNet regression--an artificial intelligence/machine learning algorithm with stochastic gradient boosting--was utilized to model the effect of essential factors on capital efficiency scores for the joined network and individual stage levels. In meeting the fifth research objective, linear regression analysis was performed to examine the influence of 12 overarching institutional characteristics on university technology transfer capital efficiency. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This research study focused on gathering the experiences of adversity of Generation Z, Latinx, children of immigrants in addition to exploring how they navigate their adversity. The purpose of this study was to recognize the multiple and intersecting identities and experiences to advance the knowledge about Generation Z and to better understand how to support these students in a way that is relevant and recognizes students' cultural wealth. A platicas methodology (Fierros & Delgado Bernal, 2016) and a community cultural wealth model (Yosso, 2005) theoretical framework were utilized to create spaces where high school students could engage in two-way conversations that validated their personal ways of knowing and the knowledges that are derived from familial tradition, shared memories, and cultural histories. Moreover, qualitative data collection methods included audio/visual recordings of individual and group platicas, transcriptions, and researcher generated platica summaries. Utilizing a thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), the data were analyzed and coded. Five main themes were identified that recounted participants' reflections and experiences with adversity, the coping mechanisms that participants engaged in, the people and tools that they rely on for support and the perceived gaps of support that exist in various areas of their lives. Each of these themes was further disaggregated into sub-themes that allowed for further exploration that interlaced the community cultural wealth model (Yosso, 2005) to provide a deeper look into the forms of cultural wealth that Latinx children of immigrants within Generation Z utilize to navigate adversity. Finally, the researcher made recommendations based on the findings that include: a) academic institutions and educational leaders need to create educational opportunities that support students' emotional well-being, b) educators need to foster a safe environment for students that include their emotional/mental safety, and c) educational leaders need to invest in their students by hiring more support personnel with social emotional expertise so that students have access to equitable services on site. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This critical bricolage study interrogated colonial mentality (CM) among six Filipina educators who are members of the Decolonial Studies Research Network through "kuwentuhan" (storytelling) sessions and used insights gathered from the "kuwentuhan" sessions to facilitate a group ideation session with the participants on how they might reimagine Philippine education ten years from now. Six research questions were categorized under "Naming" (What are the key stories that participants tell when they describe their experiences with colonial mentality? How do the individual stories and the grand historical narratives help support, contradict, or shape one another?), "Reflecting" (How do the participants feel about the stories they shared? What insights have they gleaned from their experiences?), and "Acting" (Using the design justice framework and the insights gleaned from our "kuwentuhan" sessions, how might Filipina educators reimagine Philippine education, ten years from now? How can this study inform the fields of decolonial feminist studies and decolonial futures in the Philippines?). To answer these questions, multiple theoretical frameworks and analysis methods, including the hermeneutic circle, were used. A key finding is the reconceptualization of CM as a complex, systemic, and global problem, rather than an individual psychological construct. New insights and specific ideas about the futures of the Philippines implicate not only the decolonial work of educators in the Philippines, but also of educators and practitioners in the political, economic, and sociocultural spheres, both within and beyond the Philippines. To support domestic and international actors' work in their respective communities, the decolonial portals pedagogical tool and Decolonial Design Futures framework can be used to collaborate in transdisciplinary ways, and to boldly imagine and design decolonial futures. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Rising Autism diagnosis rates have prompted numerous awareness campaigns, treatment programs, social-emotional learning initiatives, research institutes, etc. Developing analogously, the Neurodiversity movement--an activist-led social justice movement focused on equity and justice for neurodivergent people--has presented compelling critiques of the ways neurodivergent children are educated and treated in therapeutic spaces. Activists' scathing critiques of 'best practices' in autism treatment have prompted a bitter public feud (played out in op-eds, policy hearings, social media, etc.) between themselves and parents/professionals because parents/professionals have overwhelmingly focused on cure and rehabilitation--a goal that autistic activists reject. The most vitriolic behavior centers around the use of Applied Behavior Analysis (i.e., applied operant conditioning) as a treatment for Autism. Despite years of parent activism fighting for insurance coverage for ABA therapy, autistic activists (many of whom have experienced ABA therapy as children) continue to regard ABA as 'torture,' 'Autistic conversion therapy,' and 'abuse' due to both the practices of the field and the onto-epistemological assumptions that underlie Autism treatment in general. However, most attempts to curb the use of more violent interventions (i.e., the use of aversives like skin shocking) have been unsuccessful. This dissertation answers the question of 'why' several decades of activism disparaging the use of ABA as a treatment for autism have hardly even slowed the expansive growth of the ABA industry. I demonstrate how both 'sides' of the Autism Culture Wars' continued reliance on identity politics (#actuallyautistic vs Autism Moms) pins the problem on their adversary's refusal to empathize, which allows the real perpetrator--the autism intervention industry--to pursue profit over the interests of autistic people, parents, and professionals. My work intervenes by sidestepping moral, identitarian argumentation in favor of a nuanced approach more equipped to analyze the development of an autism industrial complex. This dissertation provides a historical account of the rise of behaviorism in the United States post World War Two. While many scholars and activists have argued that the field of ABA has inflicted harm upon neurodivergent children, there are very few accounts of how ABA became the preeminent therapy for autism. My dissertation utilizes archival research from the B.F. Skinner Papers at Harvard University and textual analysis of the first thirty years of publications in stand-alone behaviorists journals The Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JAEB) and The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA). This dissertation explores the sociopolitical arrangements that facilitated the rise of behaviorism in experimental psychology, education, and social services. I contextualize behaviorism within the project of modernity and demonstrate how behaviorism's legacy as one of the most dominant schools of psychological thought in the 20th century is due in part to the business acumen of early figures like Skinner. I argue Skinner and the early behaviorists were able to exploit the anxieties of the white middle class regarding otherness, social deviance, disability, and racial integration to elicit the support of universities, government agencies, private equity, and a large swath of the public, and demonstrate how these logics persist in the present. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Community engagement and service-learning programs have become staples in the curricula of colleges across the United States. While the intentions behind many of these programs are altruistic, they can often unwittingly replicate oppressive power dynamics with the communities they seek to serve. This dissertation explored how feminist community engagement can mitigate many of these dynamics through an examination of a girls' mentoring program that operates through a university women's center and abides by the values of feminist community engagement. This study aimed to provide a nuanced understanding of the program's history and the relationships between the university and community partners, which enabled the program's sustainability and success as defined by participants. A qualitative case study approach was utilized, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants representing the women's center and community site. Particular attention was given to the complexity of institutional relationships, navigating challenges, and the implications of using a feminist lens in community engagement programs. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study investigates the impact of the Trinidad and Tobago Panyard steelpan experiences on the development of the secondary school, forms one to three (middle school), music teachers' pedagogical implementation, and how these pedagogical practices are represented in today's classroom or not. The case study exploration acknowledges that while the instrument was being developed in formal educational systems, there was already a history of teaching and learning of the steelpan in the community Panyard contributing to its global growth. The symbiosis among instructional practices in the Panyard, the K-12 system, and postsecondary institutions continues to be the fertile space for understanding steelpan curriculum and instruction. Using the lenses of Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy, Decoloniality and Legitimation Code theory I analyzed these Panyard steelpan experiences and their impact on teachers' pedagogical practice. I used some of the data to map the observed integrative knowledge building using the Autonomy dimension of Legitimation Code Theory. "Within-group cultural practices" and "common, across-group cultural practices" (Paris, 2012, p. 95) were also analyzed iteratively, contributing to the growth of both the researcher and participants. This study intentionally provided opportunities to understand Steelpan's histories and social constructs better. Moreover, participants' backgrounds, biographies and experiences also provided contextual evidence for their pedagogical perspectives (Greene, 2001). I also gained greater clarity about how each participant's relation and proximity to the Panyard steelpan experience was demarcated by familial influence, and more importantly, participants of this study represented a "critical conscious" community that bridged the Panyard and the School (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Paris, 2012). I recommend creating and developing a Panyard steelpan curriculum and intentional Panyard steelpan experiences for pre- and in-service music teachers to value and sustain the contribution of the identified steelpan pedagogical elements and their corresponding histories. Since the study is in Trinidad and Tobago, which invented the steelpan, many opportunities may also be provided for global future curriculum development, professional development, alternative pedagogical approaches, assessment, and learning outcomes in steelpan studies. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Considered normative from the second half of the 20th century (Danziger, 1990), null hypothesis statistical testing (NHST) has received consistent, largely unheeded criticism. Critiques have received more attention in recent years with the recognition of the replication crisis in the social sciences and the American Statistical Society's statement and special issue on p values (Wasserstein & Lazar, 2016; Wasserstein et al., 2019). This paper seeks to provide a framework for understanding the issue by looking at the history of NHST and investigating some alternatives to the methodology. A brief review of the history, spread, and critiques of NHST is provided to help place the issues in context. Supplemental and alternative methods are described to demonstrate the range of available options to NHST. A selection of viable alternative methodologies and supplements to NHST are demonstrated using simulated data sets. Those methods that provide decision rules are compared with NHST using Monte Carlo method simulations. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study explores the queer history of the University of North Dakota from 1980 to present day and demonstrates how LGBTQ+ student activism lead to the development of LGBTQ+ programs and services at the University. Situated in a socially and politically conservative state, the University of North Dakota provides an understanding of how LGBTQ+ students organized in the 1980s out of necessity to combat social opposition and discriminatory state legislation. LGBTQ+ students were burdened with the responsibility to create their own support services and resources as there is no historical evidence of the university administration taking steps to improve the campus environment for LGBTQ+ students prior to the development of programs and services in 2017. This study contributes to the historical study of LGBTQ+ people by centering on LGBTQ+ student activism in higher education. Grounded in critical historical inquiry, oral history interviews, and primary source evidence aids in telling a more complete story of queer history at the University and connecting it to the current affairs and status on the institutional commitment to LGBTQ+ students, faculty, and staff. It also uses queer theory as a theoretical framework to guide and understanding of LGBTQ+ student experiences and the oppression they faced that lead to queer resistance. This study argues how LGBTQ+ student advocacy and activism was the driving force for the University of North Dakota, the flagship university in the state, to become a cultural battleground in the fight for LGBTQ+ equality. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Many young adults are experiencing human sexuality related issues and disorders. Researchers have found ample evidence linking hindered human sexuality discussions with clients by mental health professionals to low and reduced comfort, lack of willingness, and non-positive attitudes about sex. There is limited research that shows there is a connection between sex-based discussions in the field of mental health and the lack of clinicians' education and training in the field of human sexuality. One of the most essential ways to identify, treat, and promote sexual health is a thorough sexual history taking by clinicians. Mental health professionals agree that taking a sexual history and knowing how to take a sexual history is important in the mental health field. With that, more than half of all counselors do not believe they take and have been trained to take a sexual history during an intake or initial counseling sessions. This study found human sexuality and education can increase college counseling professionals 'probability to take a sexual history from their clients. Comfort and willingness regarding human sexuality and sex related topics also increased college counseling professionals 'probability to take a sexual history from their clients. Attitudes regarding human sexuality and sex related topics was not found to be a predictor. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

In this three-article dissertation, I explore the history of Western gardens in educational literature as well as the ontologies and epistemologies that underpin contemporary learning in gardens. Through a critical posthumanist and Indigenous scholarship lens, I collaborated with a school garden, a community garden and an indigenous garden to examine onto-epistemologies that permeate the relationships between humans and more-than-humans in gardens, revealing ways of being and knowing that are favored and the ones that are pushed out of gardening experiences, while exploring entryways to non-Western ways of being and learning in the garden. While each article stands on its own, taken together they paint a complex, rich and nuanced picture of more-than-human relationalities that occur in gardens and of human engagement deriving from different ontoepistemological orientations. This research contributes to the existing literature by exploring issues regarding environmental and sustainability education's (ESE) approach to learning in gardens, specifically the salient role of gardens in ESE's strategy in attenuating the climate crisis, by examining how gardens are conceptualized, who has agency in gardens, and what knowledges are privileged in gardens as learning spaces. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The protection and safety of students and staff in American schools are vital because students need to feel secure and nurtured in their environment in order to achieve academic success (Bakioglu & Geyin, 2009). While school shootings have been monitored since the early 1970s, it was not until 1999 that one received widespread media coverage (Altheida, 2009). While the Columbine shooting gripped the public's attention and generated school safety policies, it did not instigate enough change to end school shootings (Birkland & Lawrence, 2009). Schools across the nation have implemented, and continue to add, safety measures to prepare for an emergency like a school shooting. While there has been a great deal of energy given to limiting casualties and protecting students during a school shooting, more attention needs to be focused on stopping school shootings from occurring. While school shootings represent a small subset of violent incidents that occur in American schools, these events are extremely concerning because of the detrimental impact they have on students and the community (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2019). This study was designed to determine if a relationship exists between five conditions of past school shootings. For school staff, law enforcement, and politicians to address the ongoing threat of school shootings in American schools, they must have an understanding of the context of past school shootings. This understanding will allow them to identify areas of weakness in schools' safety plans. The purpose of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between specific factors in past school shootings. These conditions included the time of day, time of year, location of the shooting, the grade level of the school, and the motivation of the shooter. A review of literature provided evidence that research on school shooting factors is necessary. Public perception believes that schools are unsafe because of the high number of acts of violence that take place within a school (Algozzine & McGee, 2011). While the perception may not always be the reality, the perception does apply added pressure to school leaders to make sure that they are doing everything in their power to protect students. The target population for this study was schools spanning three southeastern states who have had a school shooting on their property in the last ten years. Data was collected on each school-shooting event from the 2011-2012 school year until the 2020-2021 school year from the Center for Homeland Defense and Security's K-12 School Shooting Database. The school shooting characteristics of time of day, time of year, location, grade level of the school, and the motivation of the shooter were analyzed to determine if a relationship exists between the school shooting conditions. A Causal comparative research design was used in this study. This model was defined as "...a design that seeks to find the relationships between independent and dependent variables after an event has already occurred" (Salkind, 2010). Descriptive statistics was used to summarize the study variables through frequency tables. By definition, descriptive research "describes a phenomenon with statistics such as frequencies, percentages, averages, and sometimes a measure of variability" (McMillan & Wergin, 2010, 6). Inferential statistics was used to analyze each research question with a Chi-Square test to determine statistical significance. Statistical significance was "used to report whether any difference between the group means is not likely to be due to chance" (McMillan & Wergin, 2010).Based on the findings, the data showed that each condition for a school shooting had a statistically significant difference in at least one variable. For the condition of time of day, the data yielded from the Chi-Square test indicated that the number of school shootings that took place after school, before school, during morning classes, and during afternoon classes were all statistically significant. For the condition of time of year, the data yielded from the Chi-Square test indicated that the number of school shootings that took place during the fall, meaning during the months of September, October, and November, were statistically significant. For the condition of the location of the shooting, the data yielded from the Chi-Square test indicated that the number of school shootings that took place outside of the school building, but on the school property were statistically significant. For the condition of grade level of the school, the data yielded from the Chi-Square test indicated that the number of school shootings that took place at high schools and elementary schools were statistically significant. Lastly, for the condition of motivation of the shooting, the data yielded from the Chi-Square test indicated that the number of school shootings that took place as a result of an escalation of a dispute, accidental shooting, domestic target, illegal activity, and suicides was statistically significant. Findings have implications for further research in the area of school shootings. It would be of interest to evaluate additional characteristics of school shootings or to consider the time of day, time of year, location of the shooting, grade level of the school, and the motivation of the shooter in other regions of the United States. It is recommended that state governments, school districts, and individual schools take in consideration the information and findings presented in this study regarding the five conditions of school shootings in an effort to implement strategies to prevent school shootings from occurring in the future. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

For much of the twentieth century, the Future Farmers of America was one of the most powerful youth organizations in the country and a leading voice of the American farmer. Its top members met regularly with U.S. Presidents, including Jimmy Carter who was an alumnus of the organization, and high-ranking executives from the nation's largest agribusinesses. As they developed social capital networks, Future Farmers and FFA alumni gained a reputation as the rising elite of American agriculture. Perceived to be exemplars of agricultural capitalism, active Future Farmers and alumni consumed agribusiness products, promoted technological advancement, influenced agricultural markets, and accumulated substantial amounts of agricultural capital which they reinvested into expanding their farming operations. FFA leadership supported these perceptions by ensuring that members became the most visible representatives of, and were most likely to describe themselves as, the future of capitalist agriculture in the United States. This visibility was communicated by putting corporate and political leaders into contact with those young men best exemplifying the traits of the FFA's core identity, one which was patriarchal, Protestant, wealthy, and white, reinforced materially by the FFA's blue corduroy jacket. This examination of the Future Farmers of America shows how the organization supported wealthy farmers as they sought to build financially stable farming operations for themselves, while protecting their rural communities as vibrant civic spaces. This examination is twofold, using the FFA as a lens to examine the economic and social transformations in American agriculture during the twentieth century, while simultaneously exploring the ways in which the FFA's staff, along with its members and alumni contributed to and supported these changes. By examining the Future Farmers of America, we can see reflected the capitalist transformations within American agriculture over the course of the twentieth century. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Standards of academic writing are documented in style guides adopted by academic disciplines, style guides such as the "Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association and Scientific Style and Format." Some of the standards in these style guides are expressed as prescriptive or proscriptive rules that provide academic writers with language advice. Regarding such prescriptive and proscriptive rules, this dissertation has two goals: (i) to identify and describe the body of rules that form standard academic writing and (ii) to examine whether such rules matter; that is, whether they are followed in current academic writing and whether adherence to such rules has changed over time.To accomplish the first goal, six style guides adopted by academic disciplines were analyzed to identify rules. The identified rules (n = 537) were categorized by their aim (e.g., promoting clarity, removing bias), linguistic category (e.g., lexical, grammatical), and the disciplines for which they are intended, among others. These basic categorizations revealed contradictions in how prescriptive and proscriptive rules are traditionally viewed in the linguistics community. Prescriptive and proscriptive rules are often referred to as "grammar rules," but the vast majority of the rules are, surprisingly, about lexis. As discussed by Curzan (2014), rules are often associated with arbitrary judgements regarding what constitutes "correct" or "standard" language, but rules can also be motivated by desirable values in writing such as clarity, concision, and bias-free language. Such basic categorizations and descriptions show the various layers of rules, furthering our understanding of rules and their study as a sociolinguistic phenomenon.To accomplish the second goal of the dissertation, 155 rules were analyzed in a corpus of reputable journal article writing in four disciplines (i.e., biology, history, psychology, mechanical engineering) during two periods (i.e., 1950, 2020). The corpus included 17,085 articles with 117,707,019 words. The corpus analyses provided insights into (i) which rules are violated more versus less often, (ii) what characteristics are shared by rules that tend to be violated more often, and (iii) which rules will likely continue to be followed or violated. A few of the major findings are as follows: (i) lexico-grammatical or grammatical rules are generally violated more often than lexical rules; (ii) surprisingly, some bias-free language rules are violated (e.g., the use of the biased terms opposite gender, opposite sex, and chairman); (iii) current academic writing violates the rules that proscribe the dense use of nominalizations, long noun-noun sequences, and adverbial uses of based on, and there is a considerable increase in the frequency of these features from 1950 to 2020, indicating that the rules proscribing these features will likely continue to be violated; (iv) academic writing in biology, psychology, and mechanical engineering include fewer agentless passive voice constructions in 2020 compared with 1950, and this decrease in the frequency of passive voice constructions is related to the increase in the use of the first-person pronoun we; and (v) the proscribed use of the relative pronoun "which" in restrictive relative clauses is mostly followed by academic writers, and adherence to this proscription has increased from 1950 to 2020. The findings of the dissertation have implications for the study of prescriptivism as a sociolinguistic phenomenon and for anyone involved in the writing, teaching, and/or editing of academic writing. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This dissertation makes a significant contribution to the literature for several reasons. In paper one, I argue that learning a set of useful concrete practices, in addition to CRP mindsets, can help White scholars and educators prepare to lead diverse classrooms, build culturally relevant curricula, and form strong relationships with students with various identities. To explore these practices, I analyze interview and classroom observation data from six White teachers who are experienced in employing CRP teaching practices. The goal of paper two is to understand the process of how White social studies teachers committed to using culturally relevant curricula make decisions about the curricula they will use in their courses and how they actually go about building said curricula. A culturally relevant curriculum includes the experiences of students in the classroom, values their diversity and the contributions of their community, and invites them to bring their identities into classroom discussions. Such a curriculum should therefore promote the academic success of all students, encourage cultural competence and acceptance of students' own and others' cultures, and stimulate an eye toward sociopolitical consciousness in which students analyze and explore how to confront real-world issues (Ladson-Billings, 2014). Paper two therefore focuses on social studies classrooms, in particular, and asks: What are White teachers doing to create culturally relevant social studies curricula and what goals do they have for these curricula? Finally, in response to a phenomenon that I observed emerging from my data, paper three asks: How do White teachers incorporate stories and tools of resistance, resilience, and hope while also teaching students about hard, historic realities and their lasting impacts? Studying the teaching of hard history and hope yields two benefits. First, it provides information on how, in practice, White teachers achieve balance in teaching these sometimes-competing goals. Second, understanding these practices has implications for the teacher training and professional development of White educators, especially as the teaching of hard histories becomes increasingly relevant, important, and common. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

"'To Make History the Living Force': The Professionalization of Public History, 1880- 2000" challenges how we often distinguish public history education from "traditional" history education and shows how debates about public history teaching reveal a larger and more dynamic story about all historians' professional identity, craft, and education. Historians have tinkered with historical training since the current model of graduate education emerged in the 1880s, and "To Make History the Living Force" situates the experiential and practice-based curriculum of public history training programs within this larger narrative of disciplinary formation and professionalization. The historians at the heart of this study sought to reform historical training to prepare students to navigate what National Park Service historian Dwight T. Pitcathley once described as "the spaces between," spaces where academic scholarship confronts public memories, both individual and collective, and where historians face the uncertain legacy of professionalization, unhampered by the minutiae of historiographical debates and unrestricted by the artificial yet elusive borders that divide academic and public spheres. By approaching the development of public history training as part of a broader story of historical professionalism, we come to understand how the Public History Movement of the 1970s offered new models of historical training that emphasized the interdisciplinary and dialogical nature of historical practice. We also acknowledge how historians carved out new spaces of authority in the contested and foggy terrain of historical work in the United States. The local and national stories told in "To Make History the Living Force" evidence the symbiotic relationships among teaching, scholarship, and service that formed historians' professional identities throughout the twentieth century and shaped the Public History Movement that emerged in universities in the 1970s. Historians have limited studies of public history's origins and evolution to certain time periods, rooting the field's methods and academic programs to specific episodes in American history, including the Progressive era, New Deal, Civil Rights Movement, and the 1970s academic employment crisis. By focusing on the ways in which the methods and goals of public historians are distinct from "traditional" historians, scholars have overlooked the ways in which the Public History Movement is part of an evolution of historical training and practice. Ultimately, I argue that the emergence of the Public History Movement in the late 1970s was the culmination of a persistent, century-long debate about the methods and purpose of historical training and practice. Public history programs are rooted in the establishment of the American historical profession in the late nineteenth century. As historians formed an academic discipline, they also took control of private and state-managed historical agencies and established new standards for historical work in public life. As they took on roles as archivists, curators, and administrators, historians began to reform collegiate history education training through supplementary workshops, internships, and comprehensive courses of study. The historians I follow throughout this study never sought to develop a new field of historical study. Instead, they offered an entirely new vision of historical training that better reflected the diverse ways history shapes public life. Their vision entered the mainstream at a moment when social activism and national economic woes demanded reform within collegiate history departments, challenging exceedingly narrow notions of historical professionalism and offering a new model of historical training that centered the dialogical nature of history. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This doctoral dissertation analyzes the course of student activism at the University of Puerto Rico-Rio Piedras, the largest campus in Puerto Rico's public university system, during the first three decades of the island's current political status as an "Estado Libre Asociado" (Associated Free State/Commonwealth). It makes contributions in three lines of argument: university-state relations, connections between the student activism and the Puerto Rican independence movement, and student demographics and cultures. I found that the Puerto Rican state was committed to public higher education to advance socioeconomic mobility and instill civic virtue. Contradictions within the colonial "Estado Libre Asociado" are traceable through the University of Puerto Rico as it participated in the development of a cultural nationalist imaginary while having expansive US military presence through ROTC programs. I also explore interactions between student activism and pro-independence organizations off-campus, particularly in years known as the peak of the "Nueva Lucha por la Independencia" (New Struggle for Independence). I refrain from describing mid-twentieth century pro-independence student groups as a unified student movement, instead highlighting their diversity constant evolution. While the "Nueva Lucha" is known for its Left-leaning bent, this dissertation demonstrates that legacies of socially conservative Puerto Rican Nationalism exerted considerable influence over pro-independence student activism in Rio Piedras. Additionally, I explain the ways in which student demographics and cultures shaped waves of student protest in Rio Piedras. I examine how the campus became more socioeconomically and ideologically diverse during the mid-twentieth century due in part to "Estado Libre Asociado" initiatives and federal GI Bills. Increases in enrollment during this time resulted in the growth of annexationist (pro-statehood) student organizing in opposition to pro-independence groups in a campus where most of the student body did not belong to any political organization. Debates regarding university reform, anti-war activism, student-worker collaborations, and struggles in favor of expanded access to higher education shaped activist trajectories and contemporary discourses that represent students as leaders of social mobilization in Puerto Rico. Overall, this dissertation shows ways in which campus protest in Rio Piedras influenced the development of Puerto Rican political identities during the mid-twentieth century. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

One of the critical roles of instructional leaders is to help teachers with technology integration. Instructional leaders should be familiar with emerging technology and understand how they can help teachers integrate new technology appropriately into their classrooms. One tool that has become increasingly popular to support student learning is virtual reality (VR). The purpose of this study was to explore the use of VR in a social studies classroom as it pertained to three key areas: content knowledge, students' classroom engagement, and historical empathy. The study utilized a quasi-experimental mixed methods to collect data, and both qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed. Specifically, a pre and post test, pre and post-survey, video recordings, teacher and student interviews, writing reflections, and field observations were collected during the course of this study. There was a VR group and Website group that explored the life of Anne Frank during the Holocaust and her time within the Secret Annex. The results of this study showed that no statistically significant difference in content knowledge and social studies engagement were found. However, statistically significant growth was observed in the development of historical empathy. Qualitative data particularly revealed that the use of both VR and the website was beneficial to promote student engagement, understanding of historical past, and historical empathy. The findings suggest that integration of VR is beneficial for student learning and instructional leaders should find ways to support teachers' integration of VR in K-12 classrooms. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]