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Concentric and eccentric contractions show different patterns of neural activity at both peripheral and cortical levels, which are thought to influence the perception of action properties such as the weight of objects moved by others. The aim of this study was to investigate how the type of muscle contraction influences weight estimation during action observation. Forty‐eight volunteers completed the Main experiment and the Control experiment. In the Main experiment, they performed a weight discrimination video task in which they watched videos of an actor moving two objects, a comparison, and a reference box, executing concentric or eccentric contractions and they had to indicate which box was the heaviest. Sensitivity analysis and psychometric functions were used to analyse the data. In the Control experiment, observers judged the actor's effort in moving the boxes. The results of the Main experiment showed that the weight discrimination sensitivity was higher in the eccentric condition for the light boxes. Conversely, for the heaviest boxes, discrimination sensitivity was higher in the concentric condition. These results were confirmed by the psychometric function analysis. The control experiment showed that the perceived difference in effort between the comparison and reference stimuli was greater in the eccentric than in the concentric condition for light stimuli. These results showed that the ability to evaluate the weight of the object involved in the observed action was influenced by the type of contraction and the amount of weight. The effort attributed to the actor influenced the observer's perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The interplay between the different components of emotional contagion (i.e. emotional state and facial motor resonance), both during implicit and explicit appraisal of emotion, remains controversial. The aims of this study were (i) to distinguish between these components thanks to vocal smile processing and (ii) to assess how they reflect implicit processes and/or an explicit appraisal loop. Emotional contagion to subtle vocal emotions was studied in 25 adults through motor resonance and Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) reactivity. Facial expressions (fEMG: facial electromyography) and pupil dilation were assessed during the processing and judgement of artificially emotionally modified sentences. fEMG revealed that Zygomaticus major was reactive to the perceived valence of sounds, whereas the activity of Corrugator supercilii reflected explicit judgement. Timing analysis of pupil dilation provided further insight into both the emotional state and the implicit and explicit processing of vocal emotion, showing earlier activity for emotional stimuli than for neutral stimuli, followed by valence-dependent variations and a late judgement-dependent increase in pupil diameter. This innovative combination of different electrophysiological measures shed new light on the debate between central and peripherical views within the framework of emotional contagion.

• We investigated if postural instability can induce motor resonance. • The unstable, compared to stable, display dampened left temporal theta activity. • The unstable display enhanced left temporal-prefrontal connectivity. • Biological and scramble stimuli differently modulated temporal cortex. • Observed postural (in)stability is encoded in cortical theta oscillations. This study investigates whether postural equilibration follows the same principles of motor resonance as goal-oriented actions, namely, whether an individual activates the same neuronal substrates when experiencing postural perturbation as when observing another individual in this condition. To address this question, we examined electroencephalographic dynamics while subjects observed point-light displays featuring an unstable human display, a stable human display, and their respective scrambled counterparts lacking shape information and biological motion. We focused on theta band (4–7 Hz), which is a fundamental frequency for modulating brain activity during challenging balance tasks and reflects postural stability monitoring. Rather than mirroring activity, our findings suggest an inhibitory response to postural instability. Theta event-related synchronization in the left temporal cortex was dampened for the unstable display as compared to its scramble counterpart and to the stable display. This low theta response coincided with an increase in left temporal-prefrontal connectivity, compatible with top-down inhibitory mechanisms. By contrast, the stronger theta response to the stable display as compared to the unstable one could be due to the difficulty of recognizing low-motion biological stimuli, or alternatively, to a facilitation of stimulus processing and strengthening of the mirroring response. The response facilitation for stable posture, coupled with a diminished response to the unstable display, could contribute to a broader mechanism mitigating postural threats and ensuring stable balance. Future investigations should leverage these findings to explore how posture-related responses correlate with perceptual and motor expertise, and to more clearly define these mechanisms during dynamic social interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motor activation in response to perception of action‐related stimuli may depend on a resonance mechanism subserving action understanding. The extent to which this mechanism is innate or learned from sensorimotor experience is still unclear. Here, we recorded EEG while people with paraplegia or tetraplegia consequent to spinal cord injury (SCI) and healthy control participants were presented with action sounds produced by body parts (mouth, hands or feet) that were or were not affected by SCI. Non‐action sounds were used as further control. We observed reduced brain activation in subjects affected by SCI at both pre‐ and post‐stimulus latencies specifically for those actions whose effector was disconnected by the spinal lesion (i.e., hand sound for tetraplegia and leg sound for both paraplegia and tetraplegia). Correlation analyses showed that these modulations were functionally linked with the chronicity of the lesion, indicating that the longer the time the lesion‐ EEG data acquisition interval and/or the more the lesion occurred at a young age, the weaker was the cortical activity in response to these action sounds. Tellingly, source estimations confirmed that these modulations originated from a deficit in the motor resonance mechanism, by showing diminished activity in premotor (during prediction and perception) and near the primary motor (during perception) areas. Such dissociation along the cortical hierarchy is consistent with both previous reports in healthy subjects and with hierarchical predictive coding accounts. Overall, these data expand on the notion that sensorimotor experience maintains the cortical representations relevant to anticipate and perceive action‐related stimuli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: It is widely acknowledged that dogs synchronise their behaviours with those of humans. In this article, we delve into the neural and cognitive bases of this form of behavioural adjustment. Using knowledge of cerebral processes underlying behavioural synchronisation in humans, namely motor resonance and the activation of mirror neurons, we investigated whether dogs' behavioural synchronisation with humans could be based on similar mechanisms. In humans, both perceiving and executing an action activate the motor representations of that action. Motor resonance occurs when motor representations of an action are simultaneously activated in both the observer and the individual being observed. Mirror neurons are the neural substrate for motor resonance as these motor neurons activate both when an individual performs or perceives an action. Our review of existing literature shows that motor resonance could occur in dogs, suggesting that dogs' behavioural synchronisation with humans relies on the activation of both human and canine mirror neurons. Behavioural studies suggest but do not prove the existence of motor resonance between the two species, and thus further research is needed to confirm this hypothesis. Revealing the mechanisms underlying dogs' behavioural synchronisation with humans would contribute to a better understanding of how dogs and humans have evolved together since the beginning of their cohabitation. Dogs' behavioural synchronisation with humans is of growing scientific interest. However, studies lack a comprehensive exploration of the neurocognitive foundations of this social cognitive ability. Drawing parallels from the mechanisms underlying behavioural synchronisation in humans, specifically motor resonance and the recruitment of mirror neurons, we hypothesise that dogs' behavioural synchronisation with humans is underpinned by a similar mechanism, namely interspecific motor resonance. Based on a literature review, we argue that dogs possess the prerequisites for motor resonance, and we suggest that interspecific behavioural synchronisation relies on the activation of both human and canine mirror neurons. Furthermore, interspecific behavioural studies highlight certain characteristics of motor resonance, including motor contagion and its social modulators. While these findings strongly suggest the potential existence of interspecific motor resonance, direct proof remains to be established. Our analysis thus paves the way for future research to confirm the existence of interspecific motor resonance as the neurocognitive foundation for interspecific behavioural synchronisation. Unravelling the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying this behavioural adjustment holds profound implications for understanding the evolutionary dynamics of dogs alongside humans and improving the day-to-day management of dog–human interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to predict the weight of objects is important for skilled and dexterous manipulation during activities of daily living. The observation of other people moving objects might represent an important source of information on object features and help to plan the correct motor interaction with it. In aging, an impaired ability to evaluate the object weight might have negative drawbacks in term of the safety of the person. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of aging in the ability to discriminate the object weight during action observation. Twenty older adults (Old) and twenty young subjects (Young) performed a twointerval forced-choice task consisting in the observation of a couple of videos showing an actor moving a box of different weights. The observer had to evaluate which video showed the heavier box. Handgrip strength was acquired from all subjects. Sensitivity analysis was performed and psychometric curves were built on participants' responses. The results showed a diminished sensitivity in the object weight discrimination in Old than in Young group. The analysis of the psychometric curves revealed that this impairment pertained both the light and heavy boxes and the minimum difference to discriminate different weights was greater in Old than in Young. At last, the sensitivity and the discrimination ability significantly correlated with individuals' handgrip strength. These findings allow us to deeply characterize the impairments older adults have in discriminating the weight of an object moved by another individual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to predict the weight of objects is important for skilled and dexterous manipulation during activities of daily living. The observation of other people moving objects might represent an important source of information on object features and help to plan the correct motor interaction with it. In aging, an impaired ability to evaluate the object weight might have negative drawbacks in term of the safety of the person. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of aging in the ability to discriminate the object weight during action observation. Twenty older adults (Old) and twenty young subjects (Young) performed a two-interval forced-choice task consisting in the observation of a couple of videos showing an actor moving a box of different weights. The observer had to evaluate which video showed the heavier box. Handgrip strength was acquired from all subjects. Sensitivity analysis was performed and psychometric curves were built on participants’ responses. The results showed a diminished sensitivity in the object weight discrimination in Old than in Young group. The analysis of the psychometric curves revealed that this impairment pertained both the light and heavy boxes and the minimum difference to discriminate different weights was greater in Old than in Young. At last, the sensitivity and the discrimination ability significantly correlated with individuals’ handgrip strength. These findings allow us to deeply characterize the impairments older adults have in discriminating the weight of an object moved by another individual.

This study aimed to investigate the role of sensorimotor expertise in evaluating relative weight of a lifted object during the observation of a sport-specific gesture, namely the deadlift. Fifty-six participants, assigned to three groups according to their experience in weight lifting, powerlifters, CrossFit® practitioners and naïve participants (controls), performed a perceptual weight judgments task. Participants observed videos showing a powerlifter executing a deadlift at the 80%, 90% and 100% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) and answered a question about the weight of the lifted object. Participants' response accuracy and variability were evaluated. Findings showed that powerlifters were more accurate than controls. No differences appeared between powerlifter and CrossFit® practitioners, and between CrossFit® practitioners and controls. Response variability was similar in the three groups. These findings suggest that a fine sensorimotor expertise specific for the observed gesture is crucial to detect the weight of the object displayed in the observed movement, since it might allow detecting small changes in the observed movement kinematics, which we speculate are at the basis of the object weight recognition.

In the motor drive system of electric vehicles, there are some nonlinear factors, such as the deadtime and the conduction voltage drop of switching devices, which will generate low-order harmonics of the stator current and the torque ripple. The frequency of the harmonic may coincide with the natural frequency of the motor, so resonance may occur on the motor drive system. To reduce the noise caused by motor resonance, the characteristics of harmonic distortion caused by the deadtime, and the conduction voltage drop of the switching device, are analyzed firstly. Then, a motor vector control strategy with specific low order is proposed. The sixth-order harmonic resonance controller in d-q axis is introduced into the control loop, and the parameter designing principle of the controller is also presented. Without affecting the control performance of the current loop, the sixth-order harmonic of the stator current near the natural frequency can be significantly suppressed. Finally, the simulation and the experiment are carried out to certify the correctness and effectiveness of the proposed harmonic suppression method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Virtual clinical interactions have increased tremendously since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. While they certainly have their advantages, there also exist potential limitations, for example, in establishing a therapeutic alliance, discussing complex clinical scenarios, etc. This may be due to possible disruptions in the accurate activation of the human mirror neuron system (MNS), a posited physiological template for effective social communication. Objective: This study aimed to compare motor resonance, a putative marker of MNS activity, estimated using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) elicited while viewing virtual (video-based) and actual or real (enacted by a person) actions in healthy individuals. We hypothesized that motor resonance will be greater during real compared to virtual action observation. Methods: We compared motor resonance or motor-evoked potential (MEP) facilitation during the observation of virtual (presented via videos) and real (enacted in person) actions, relative to static image observation in healthy individuals using TMS. The MEP recordings were obtained by 2 single-pulse (neuronal membrane excitability-driven) TMS paradigms of different intensities and 2 paired-pulse (cortical gamma-aminobutyric acid-interneuron-driven) TMS paradigms. Results: This study comprised 64 participants. Using the repeated measures ANOVA, we observed a significant time effect for MEP facilitation from static to virtual and real observation states when recorded using 3 of the 4 TMS paradigms. Post hoc pairwise comparisons with Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate correction revealed significant MEP facilitation in both virtual and real observation states relative to static image observation; however, we also observed a significant time effect between the 2 action observation states (real > virtual) with 2 of the 4 TMS paradigms. Conclusions: Our results indicate that visual cues expressed via both virtual (video) or real (in person) modes elicit physiological responses within the putative MNS, but this effect is more pronounced for actions presented in person. This has relevance to the appropriate implementation of digital health solutions, especially those pertaining to mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans are equipped with an extraordinary ability to understand and imitate actions by mapping the observed movement onto their own cortical motor system. Long-established lines of research have identified two correlates of this motor resonance following action observation: the mu rhythm event-related desynchronization (mu-ERD) recorded through electroencephalography (EEG) and the facilitation of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the primary motor cortex (M1). Yet, whether mu-ERD and MEP facilitation reflect unique or distinct mechanisms is not conclusive, as prior work did not combine simultaneous TMS-EEG recording with a trial-by-trial analysis of the two markers. To address this issue, here, we used TMS-EEG co-registration while participants observed and executed finger movements. EEG was continuously recorded while single-pulse TMS was administered over the left M1 and MEPs were recorded from the right hand. We found stronger motor cortex recruitment during action execution and observation as shown by mu-ERD. MEPs instead were larger overall during action execution and showed a facilitation specific to the muscles involved in the observed movements. Interestingly, when analyzing these two parameters using a trial-by-trial statistical approach, we did not find any relationship between mu-ERD and MEPs within the action observation condition. Our findings support the notion that EEG and TMS indices of motor resonance reflect distinct neural mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors investigated children's automatic imitation in the context of observed shyness by adapting the widely used automatic imitation task (AIT). AIT performance in 6‐year‐old children (N = 38; 22 female; 71% White) and young adults (17–22 years; N = 122; 99 female; 32% White) was first examined as a proof of concept and to assess age‐related differences in responses to the task (Experiment 1). Although error rate measures of automatic imitation were comparable between children and adults, children displayed less reaction time interference than adults. Children's shyness coded from direct behavioral observations was then examined in relation to AIT scores (Experiment 2). Observed shyness at 5 years old predicted higher automatic imitation one year later. We discuss the latter findings in the context of an adaptive strategy. We argue that shy children may possess a heightened sensitivity to others' motor cues and therefore are more likely to implicitly imitate social partners' actions. This tendency may serve as a strategy to signal appeasement and affiliation, allowing for shy children to blend in and feel less inhibited in a social environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corticospinal excitability (CSE) in humans measured with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is generally increased by the perception of other people's actions. This perception can be unimodal (visual or auditory) or multimodal (visual and auditory). The increase in TMS-measured CSE is typically prominent for muscles involved in the perceived action (muscle specificity). There are two main classes of accounts for this phenomenon. One suggests that the motor system mirrors the actions that the observer perceives (the resonance account). The other suggests that the motor system predicts the actions that the observer perceives (the predictive account). To test these accounts (which need not be mutually exclusive), subjects were presented with four versions of three-note piano sequences: sound only, sight only, audiovisual, and audiovisual with sound lagging behind (the prediction violation condition). CSE was measured in two hand muscles used to play the notes. CSE increased reliably in one muscle only for the prediction violation condition, in line with the predictive account, while the other muscle demonstrated CSE increase for all conditions, in line with the resonance account. This finding supports both predictive coding accounts as well as resonance accounts of motor facilitation during action perception.

Understanding observed interpersonal touch, particularly the so-called affective touch targeting the CT fibers, is essential for social interactions. Research has documented that observing other people being touched activates the same cortical areas involved in direct tactile experiences. However, observing interpersonal touch also activates an inner simulation of the movements in the observer's motor system. Given the social and affective significance of CT-optimal touch, the present study tested the hypothesis that observing stroking touches targeting or not targeting the CT fibers system might distinctly influence motor resonance to vicarious touch. With this aim, we used single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation and motor-evoked potentials recording while participants observed video clips of interpersonal touch events at different stroking velocities. We found a modulation of motor system activity, particularly a decrease in corticospinal excitability, when observing CT-optimal touch as opposed to non-CT-optimal velocities, a mechanism that might aid in understanding the touchee's feelings during vicarious interpersonal touch. Moreover, participants with higher reliance on bodily cues to be emotionally aware showed greater motor suppression for CT-optimal compared to non-CT-optimal velocities. These results shed light on the complex interplay between motor and somatosensory systems in social touch perception and emphasize the importance of affective touch in human social interactions., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press.)

In the motor drive system of electric vehicles, there are some nonlinear factors, such as the deadtime and the conduction voltage drop of switching devices, which will generate low-order harmonics of the stator current and the torque ripple. The frequency of the harmonic may coincide with the natural frequency of the motor, so resonance may occur on the motor drive system. To reduce the noise caused by motor resonance, the characteristics of harmonic distortion caused by the deadtime, and the conduction voltage drop of the switching device, are analyzed firstly. Then, a motor vector control strategy with specific low order is proposed. The sixth-order harmonic resonance controller in d-q axis is introduced into the control loop, and the parameter designing principle of the controller is also presented. Without affecting the control performance of the current loop, the sixth-order harmonic of the stator current near the natural frequency can be significantly suppressed. Finally, the simulation and the experiment are carried out to certify the correctness and effectiveness of the proposed harmonic suppression method.

Stimulus-response compatibility (SRC)-the fact that some stimulus-response pairs are faster than others-is attributed in part to automatic activation of the stimulus-compatible response representation. Cognitive models of SRC propose that automatic response activation can be strategically suppressed if the automatic response is likely to interfere with behavior; in particular, suppression is thought to occur in preparation for incompatible responses and when the required stimulus-response mapping is unknown before stimulus presentation. We test this preparatory suppression hypothesis in the context of imitation, a special form of SRC particularly relevant to human social behavior. Using TMS, we measured muscle-specific corticospinal excitability during action observation (motor resonance) while human participants prepared to perform imitative and counterimitative responses to action videos. Motor resonance was suppressed during preparation to counterimitate and for unknown mappings, compared to preparation to imitate and a baseline measure of motor resonance. These results provide novel neurophysiological evidence that automatic activation of stimulus-compatible responses can be strategically suppressed when the automatic response is likely to interfere with task goals. Insofar as motor resonance measures mirror neuron system activity, these results also suggest that preparatory control of automatic imitative tendencies occurs through modulation of mirror neuron system activity.

Embodied metaphor theory suggests abstract concepts are metaphorically linked to more experientially basic ones and recruit sensorimotor cortex for their comprehension. To test whether words associated with spatial attributes reactivate traces in sensorimotor cortex, we recorded EEG from the scalp of healthy adults as they read words while performing a concurrent task involving either upward- or downward- directed arm movements. ERPs were time-locked to words associated with vertical space-either literally (ascend, descend) or metaphorically (inspire, defeat)-as participants made vertical movements that were either congruent or incongruent with the words. Congruency effects emerged 200-300 ms after word onset for literal words, but not until after 500 ms post-onset for metaphorically related words. Results argue against a strong version of embodied metaphor theory, but support a role for sensorimotor simulation in concrete language.

Dehumanization is the failure to recognize the cognitive and emotional complexities of the people around us. While its presence has been well documented in horrific acts of violence, it is also theorized to play a role in everyday life. We measured its presence and effects in face-to-face dyadic interactions between strangers and found that not only was there variance in the extent to which they perceived one another as human, but this variance predicted neural processing and behavior. Specifically, participants showed stronger neural mirroring, indexed by electroencephalography (EEG) mu-suppression, in response to partners they evaluated as more human, suggesting their brains neurally simulated those targets' actions more. Participants were also marginally more empathically accurate about the emotions of partners deemed more human and performed better with them on a cooperative task. These results suggest that there are indeed differences in our recognition of the humanity of people we meet—demonstrated for the first time in a real, face-to-face interaction—and that this mundane variation affects our ability to neurally simulate, cooperate and empathize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims at the cerebellum's role in prediction mechanisms triggered by action observation. Five cerebellar patients and six age-paired control subjects were asked to estimate the occluded end point position of the shoulder's trajectories in Sit-to-Stand (STS) or Back-to-Sit (BTS) conditions, following or not biological rules. Contrarily to the control group, the prediction accuracy of the end point position in cerebellar patients did not depend on biological rules. Interestingly, both groups presented similar results when estimating the vanishing position of the target. Taken together, these results suggest that cerebellar damage affectsthe capacity of predicting upcoming actions by observation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies have reported a decrease in motor cortical output during pain observation. In contrast, recent behavioral studies have shown that response times are faster after pain observation. This suggests that there is a mismatch between motor activity “during” versus “after” pain observation. We propose that these opposing effects of pain observation on motor activity may be explained by task constraints, as participants in TMS studies are instructed to keep still and relax their hands, whereas participants in behavioral studies maintain a state of readiness to respond. Task and methodological differences make it difficult to compare the results from TMS and behavioral paradigms examining the motor consequences of pain observation. As such, the aim of the current study is to directly test whether task instructions affect motor activity in TMS and behavioral measures of motor activity in the context of pain observation, within a single experiment. Participants watched videos of hands in painful versus nonpainful scenarios while TMS-induced motor evoked potentials were recorded. In the “active” block, participants responded to a cue that appeared immediately after each video; in the “passive” block, they relaxed their hand. Contrary to expectations, participants showed enhanced motor cortical output during pain observation (vs. no-pain) in “both” blocks. We discuss these results in relation to the wider literature on the social neuroscience of empathy. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The current study provides novel results showing an increase motor cortical output, measured via transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)-induced motor evoked potentials (MEPs), during empathic pain observation regardless of motor preparation state. Interestingly, this finding runs counter to the empathy for pain literature, which often finds a decrease in motor cortical output during empathic pain observation. We discuss potential explanations for this discrepancy and relate these results to the wider empathy for pain literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motor resonance (MR) can be influenced by individual differences and similarity in the physical appearance between the actor and observer. Recently, we reported that action simulation is modulated by an implicit visual sensitivity towards normal-weight compared with overweight bodies. Furthermore, recent research has suggested the existence of an action observation network responsible for MR, with limited evidence whether the primary motor cortex (M1) is part of this. We expanded our previous findings with regards to the role of an implicit normal-weight-body preference in the MR mechanism. At the same time, we tested the functional relevance of M1 to MR, by using a transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) protocol. Seventeen normal-weight and 17 overweight participants were asked to observe normal-weight or overweight actors reaching and grasping a light or heavy cube, and then, at the end of each video-clip to indicate the correct cube weight. Before the task, all participants received 15 min of sham or cathodal tDCS over the left M1. Measures of anti-fat attitudes were also collected. During sham tDCS, all participants were better in simulating the actions performed by normal-weight compared with overweight models. Surprisingly, cathodal tDCS selectively improved the ability in the overweight group to simulate actions performed by the overweight models. This effect was not associated with scores of fat phobic attitudes or implicit anti-fat bias. Our findings are discussed in the context of relevance of M1 to MR and its social modulation by anti-fat attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spontaneous rhythmical movements, like foot-tapping and head-bobbing, often emerge when people listen to music, promoting the enjoyable sensation of 'being in the groove'. Here we report the first experiment to investigate if seeing the music maker modulates this experience. Across trials we manipulated groove level in the audio beats (high vs low), and manipulated the match between the audio beats and a concurrently observed point-light display (PLD) of the drummer. The visual display was either fully corresponding with the audio beats, or incompatible across three conditions: a static PLD, a corresponding but asynchronous PLD (0.5s time shifted); or a non-corresponding PLD (e.g. high groove audio paired with low groove PLD). Participants (n = 36) rated: (a) their desire to move; and (b) their perceived groove, purely in response to the audio beats, using 8-point Likert scales. The main effects of groove level and visual display were significant in both measurements. Ratings increased for high compared to low groove audio overall, and for the fully corresponding condition compared to the other visual conditions. Ratings of the desire to move also increased in the static compared to the non-corresponding condition, and the two-way interaction was significant. Desire to move significantly increased for high compared to low groove audio in the fully corresponding, static and asynchronous conditions, while this effect was absent in the non-corresponding condition. These findings identify the importance of seeing as well as hearing the musician for an enhanced experience of groove, which necessitates a multimodal account of music perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transcranial magnetic stimulation studies have highlighted that corticospinal excitability is increased during observation of object lifting, an effect termed "motor resonance." This facilitation is driven by movement features indicative of object weight, such as object size or observed movement kinematics. Here, we investigated in 35 humans (23 females) how motor resonance is altered when the observer's weight expectations, based on visual information, do not match the actual object weight as revealed by the observed movement kinematics. Our results highlight that motor resonance is not robustly driven by object weight but easily masked by a suppressive mechanism reflecting the correctness of weight expectations. Subsequently, we investigated in 24 humans (14 females) whether this suppressive mechanism was driven by higher-order cortical areas. For this, we induced "virtual lesions" to either the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) or dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) before having participants perform the task. Importantly, virtual lesion of pSTS eradicated this suppressive mechanism and restored object weight-driven motor resonance. In addition, DLPFC virtual lesion eradicated any modulation of motor resonance. This indicates that motor resonance is heavily mediated by top-down inputs from both pSTS and DLPFC. Together, these findings shed new light on the theorized cortical network driving motor resonance. That is, our findings highlight that motor resonance is not only driven by the putative human mirror neuron network consisting of the primary motor and premotor cortices as well as the anterior intraparietal sulcus, but also by top-down input from pSTS and DLPFC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perceptions of the primary social dimensions, warmth and competence, determine how we view and relate to social targets. To discern how warmth and competence might affect neural processing and its downstream behavioral consequences, we manipulated impressions of targets' warmth and competence and then measured intentions toward the target and motor resonance, a neural process previously linked to social processing. While EEG was recorded, 66 participants watched videos of people performing a simple motor activity and completed a measure of hypothetical intentions to help or harm. Both perceptions of warmth and competence predicted an increase in helping intentions. Moreover, participants showed the least motor resonance with high competence-medium warmth targets, suggesting the importance of both social dimensions in driving neural simulation of targets' actions. Perceptions of a person's warmth and competence can affect not only how others might intend to treat them, but also how they might process their basic experiences on a neural level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human inability to notice plants and recognise their importance on Earth has been termed "plant blindness". Among the main reasons (e.g., cultural and biological factors) underlying this phenomenon, the lack of visible movement of plants seems to be the main factor that makes plants less prominent to the human eye. Here, we tested the idea that observing plants moving on our time scale might change the way we attend to them. We combined single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and motor-evoked potential (MEP) recordings to assess the activation of observers' motor system during the observation of an action performed by either a pea plant or a human when approaching and grasping a pole. Control conditions involving a stationary hand or pea plant, a hand or pea plant rotating along their axes, and a hand grasping the pole in the style of a plant were also considered. The participants' sensitivity to the role and importance of plants for human life and other living organisms was assessed by means of an ad-hoc questionnaire. The results showed a specific effect of motor facilitation relative to baseline values when observing plants rotating and grasping, but not for plants standing still. Higher levels of motor activation may indicate a greater degree of effort in interpreting the observed action, when it is perceived as unfamiliar by the observer. An effort that can be reduced through awareness and knowledge of the role and importance of the green kingdom for life on Earth. Notably, people more sensitive to plants showed similar levels of motor activation when observing both plant and human actions. • Observing plants moving on our time scale changes the way we attend to them. • The motor system is more activated when observing plant than human movements. • Sensitivity to plants could help reduce plant blindness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: It is well known that observing actions and understanding sentences with motor actions activates corresponding motor processes in the observer-comprehender. This interaction of primary motor areas between words and phrases that indicate physical movement is defined as motor resonance. While many studies in the literature show that there is a direct relationship between literal expressions containing physical actions and the motor system (Desai et al., 2011; Desai et al., 2010), it is still an ongoing discussion whether expressions containing motor action trigger the motor system when they are used in a figurative context. The current study aimed to address how language and transparency (different types of idiomatic expressions) affect motor resonance in the primary motor cortex. Methods: Twenty-six Spanish and eleven Turkish participants underwent continuous theta burst (CTBs) stimulations to the primary motor cortex (M1) area. Following CTBs applications, participants underwent an Overt Priming Task with Self-Paced Reading task on a PC. Results: Linear mixed effects models analysis revealed a facilitation effect in sentences with literal motor actions. All participants processed transparent idiomatic sentences much faster than opaque idiomatic ones after cTBS application compared to the sham condition. We argue that the facilitation effect in transparent idioms is because the distance between the figurative and literal meaning is much closer in transparent idioms, and literal meanings of transparent idioms included a hand motor verb. Conclusion: Our results confirm the embodied approach, supporting the idea of a functional role of the M1 area for comprehension of motor actions, and we propose novel motor resonance results among different types of idioms. This research was supported by TUBITAK 2219 International Post-Doc Fellowship Program (Project No: 1059B192200694). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The finding of reasonably consistent spatial and temporal productions of actions across different body parts has been used to argue in favor of the existence of a high-order representation of motor programs. In these terms, a generalized motor program consists of an abstract memory structure apt to specify a class of non-specific instructions used to guide a broad range of movements (e.g., “grasp,” “bite”). Although a number of studies, using a variety of tasks, have assessed the issue of effector independence in terms of action execution, little is known regarding the issue of effector independence within an action observation context. Here corticospinal excitability (CSE) of the right hand’s first dorsal interosseous (FDI) and abductor digiti minimi (ADM) muscles was assessed by means of single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) during observation of a grasping action performed by the hand, the foot, the mouth, the elbow, or the knee. The results indicate that observing a grasping action performed with different body parts activates the effector typically adopted to execute that action, i.e., the hand. We contend that, as far as grasping is concerned, motor activations by action observation are evident in the muscles typically used to perform the observed action, even when the action is executed with another effector. Nevertheless, some exceptions call for a deeper analysis of motor coding.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies have shown that observing an action induces activity in the onlooker's motor system. In light of the muscle specificity and time-locked mirroring nature of the effect, this motor resonance has been traditionally viewed as an inner automatic replica of the observed movement. Notably, studies highlighting this aspect have classically considered movement in isolation (i.e., using non-realistic stimuli such as snapshots of hands detached from background). However, a few recent studies accounting for the role of contextual cues, motivational states, and social factors, have challenged this view by showing that motor resonance is not completely impervious to top-down modulations. A debate is still present. We reasoned that motor resonance reflects the inner replica of the observed movement only when its modulation is assessed during the observation of movements in isolation. Conversely, the presence of top-down modulations of motor resonance emerges when other high-level factors (i.e., contextual cues, past experience, social, and motivational states) are taken into account. Here, we attempt to lay out current TMS studies assessing this issue and discuss the results in terms of their potential to favor the inner replica or the top-down modulation hypothesis. In doing so, we seek to shed light on this actual debate and suggest specific avenues for future research, highlighting the need for a more ecological approach when studying motor resonance phenomenon.

Intellectual disability (ID) compromises intellectual and adaptive functioning. People with an ID show difficulty with procedural skills, with loss of autonomy in daily life. From an embodiment perspective, observation of action promotes motor skill learning. Among promising technologies, virtual reality (VR) offers the possibility of engaging the sensorimotor system, thus, improving cognitive functions and adaptive capacities. Indeed, VR can be used as sensorimotor feedback, which enhances procedural learning. In the present study, fourteen subjects with an ID underwent progressive steps training combined with VR aimed at learning gardening procedures. All participants were trained twice a week for fourteen weeks (total 28 sessions). Participants were first recorded while sowing zucchini, then they were asked to observe a virtual video which showed the correct procedure. Next, they were presented with their previous recordings, and they were asked to pay attention and to comment on the errors made. At the end of the treatment, the results showed that all participants were able to correctly garden in a real environment. Interestingly, action observation facilitated, not only procedural skills, but also specific cognitive abilities. This evidence emphasizes, for the first time, that action observation combined with VR improves procedural learning in ID.

Humans can acquire information on others' motor outputs (action prediction) and intentions (action understanding) according to their individual motor repertoire and to the detected gesture's features (e.g. temporal patterns). We aimed at dissociating between action prediction and action understanding abilities in soccer players and novices observing soccer action videos including correct timing pass (CTP) or delayed pass (DP). First, we used an occluding paradigm to evaluate participants' ability to predict the correct time to pass the ball. Although soccer players showed reduced reaction times, all subjects showed a similar pattern of performance: during DP observation, responses appeared delayed with respect to the other conditions but anticipated with respect to the observed DP. In a separate experiment, we investigated the ability to recognize CTP vs DP and the modulation of primary motor cortex (M1) excitability associated to video observation. Only soccer players showed selective modulation of M1 according to the plausibility of the observed action, with increased excitability during the observation of the CTP and in a phase preceding the DP. In conclusion, action prediction ability seems to be independent from the individual motor repertoire. By contrast, only subjects with previously acquired sensorimotor skills are able to infer the observed action's long-term intention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The finding of reasonably consistent spatial and temporal productions of actions across different body parts has been used to argue in favor of the existence of a high-order representation of motor programs. In these terms, a generalized motor program consists of an abstract memory structure apt to specify a class of non-specific instructions used to guide a broad range of movements (e.g., "grasp," "bite"). Although a number of studies, using a variety of tasks, have assessed the issue of effector independence in terms of action execution, little is known regarding the issue of effector independence within an action observation context. Here corticospinal excitability (CSE) of the right hand's first dorsal interosseous (FDI) and abductor digiti minimi (ADM) muscles was assessed by means of single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) during observation of a grasping action performed by the hand, the foot, the mouth, the elbow, or the knee. The results indicate that observing a grasping action performed with different body parts activates the effector typically adopted to execute that action, i.e., the hand. We contend that, as far as grasping is concerned, motor activations by action observation are evident in the muscles typically used to perform the observed action, even when the action is executed with another effector. Nevertheless, some exceptions call for a deeper analysis of motor coding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pain is a salient, aversive sensation which motivates avoidance, but also has a strong social signaling function. Numerous studies have shown that regions of the nervous system active in association with first-hand pain are also active in response to the pain of others. When witnessing somatic pain, such as seeing bodies in painful situations, significant activations occur not only in areas related to the processing of negative emotions, but also in neuronal structures engaged in somatosensation and the control of skeletal muscles. These empathy-related sensorimotor activations are selectively reviewed in this article, with a focus on studies using electrophysiological methods and paradigms investigating responses to somatic pain. Convergent evidence from these studies shows that these activations (1) occur at multiple levels of the nervous system, from the spinal cord up to the cerebral cortex, (2) are best conceptualized as activations of a defensive system, in line with the role of pain to protect body from injury, and (3) contribute to establishing a matching of psychological states between the sufferer and the observer, which ultimately supports empathic understanding and motivate prosocial action. Future research should thus focus on how these sensorimotor responses are related to higher-order empathic responses, including affective sharing and emotion regulation, and how this motivates approach-related prosocial behaviors aimed at alleviating the pain and suffering of others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies have shown that observing an action induces activity in the onlooker's motor system. In light of the muscle specificity and time-locked mirroring nature of the effect, this motor resonance has been traditionally viewed as an inner automatic replica of the observed movement. Notably, studies highlighting this aspect have classically considered movement in isolation (i.e., using non-realistic stimuli such as snapshots of hands detached from background). However, a few recent studies accounting for the role of contextual cues, motivational states, and social factors, have challenged this view by showing that motor resonance is not completely impervious to top-down modulations. A debate is still present. We reasoned that motor resonance reflects the inner replica of the observed movement only when its modulation is assessed during the observation of movements in isolation. Conversely, the presence of top-down modulations of motor resonance emerges when other high-level factors (i.e., contextual cues, past experience, social, and motivational states) are taken into account. Here, we attempt to lay out current TMS studies assessing this issue and discuss the results in terms of their potential to favor the inner replica or the top-down modulation hypothesis. In doing so, we seek to shed light on this actual debate and suggest specific avenues for future research, highlighting the need for a more ecological approach when studying motor resonance phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spoken language is an innate ability of the human being and represents the most widespread mode of social communication. The ability to share concepts, intentions and feelings, and also to respond to what others are feeling/saying is crucial during social interactions. A growing body of evidence suggests that language evolved from manual gestures, gradually incorporating motor acts with vocal elements. In this evolutionary context, the human mirror mechanism (MM) would permit the passage from "doing something" to "communicating it to someone else." In this perspective, the MM would mediate semantic processes being involved in both the execution and in the understanding of messages expressed by words or gestures. Thus, the recognition of action related words would activate somatosensory regions, reflecting the semantic grounding of these symbols in action information. Here, the role of the sensorimotor cortex and in general of the human MM on both language perception and understanding is addressed, focusing on recent studies on the integration between symbolic gestures and speech. We conclude documenting some evidence about MM in coding also the emotional aspects conveyed by manual, facial and body signals during communication, and how they act in concert with language to modulate other's message comprehension and behavior, in line with an "embodied" and integrated view of social interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The role of the "mirror neuron system" (MNS) in the pathophysiology of mood disorders is not well studied. Given its posited role in the often‐impaired socio‐emotional processes like intention detection, empathy, and imitation, we compared putative MNS‐activity in patients with bipolar mania and healthy comparison subjects. We also examined the association between putative MNS‐activity and hyper‐imitative behaviors in patients. Methods: We studied 39 medication‐free individuals diagnosed with mania and 45 healthy comparison subjects. TMS‐evoked motor cortical reactivity was measured via single‐ and paired‐pulse stimuli (assessing SICI—short and LICI—long interval intracortical inhibition) while subjects viewed a static image and goal‐directed actions. Manic symptom severity and imitative behaviors were quantified using the Young's Mania Rating Scale and a modification of the Echolalia Questionnaire. Results: Two‐way repeated measures analysis of variance demonstrated a significant group ×time interaction effect indicating greater facilitation of cortical reactivity during action‐observation (putative MNS‐activity) in the patient group as compared to the healthy group. While LICI‐mediated MNS‐activity had a significant association with manic symptom severity (r = 0.35, P = 0.038), SICI‐mediated MNS‐activity was significantly associated with incidental echolalia scores in a subgroup of 17 patients with incidental echolalia (r = 0.75, P < 0.001). Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate that putative MNS‐activity is heightened in mania, possibly because of disinhibition, and associated with behavioral consequences (incidental echolalia). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To advance our knowledge on the motor system during cyclic gait observation, we aimed to explore the effects of gaze fixation on corticospinal excitability evaluated by single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Fourteen healthy adult volunteers watched a video of a demonstrator walking on a treadmill under three different conditions: (1) observing the right lower limb, (2) observing the right ankle joint, and (3) observing the right lower limb on a video focused on the area below the knee. In each condition, motor-evoked potentials elicited by TMS in the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle were measured synchronously with the demonstrator’s initial contact and toe-off points. Directing visual attention to the ankle joint and focusing on its movements caused corticospinal facilitation in the TA muscle compared with watching the video without any visual fixation. In addition, phase-dependent differences in corticospinal excitability between the initial contact and toe-off points were only detected when the visibility range was restricted to below the knee. Our findings indicated that motor resonance during cyclic gait observation is modulated by visual attention and motion visibility in different activation manners.

Corticospinal excitability (CSE) in humans measured with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is generally increased by the perception of other people’s actions. This perception can be unimodal (visual or auditory) or multimodal (visual and auditory). The increase in TMS-measured CSE is typically prominent for muscles involved in the perceived action (muscle specificity). There are two main classes of accounts for this phenomenon. One suggests that the motor system mirrors the actions that the observer perceives (the resonance account). The other suggests that the motor system predicts the actions that the observer perceives (the predictive account). To test these accounts (which need not be mutually exclusive), subjects were presented with four versions of three-note piano sequences: sound only, sight only, audiovisual, and audiovisual with sound lagging behind (the prediction violation condition). CSE was measured in two hand muscles used to play the notes. CSE increased reliably in one muscle only for the prediction violation condition, in line with the predictive account, while the other muscle demonstrated CSE increase for all conditions, in line with the resonance account. This finding supports both predictive coding accounts as well as resonance accounts of motor facilitation during action perception.

Background: EEG mu-desynchronization is an index of motor resonance (MR) and is used to study social interaction deficiencies, but finding differences in mu-desynchronization does not reveal how nonlinear brain dynamics are affected during MR. The current study explores how nonlinear brain dynamics change during MR. We hypothesized that the complexity of the mu frequency band (8–13 Hz) changes during MR, and that this change would be frequency specific. Additionally, we sought to determine whether complexity at baseline and changes in complexity during action observation would predict MR and changes in network dynamics.Methods: EEG was recorded from healthy participants (n = 45) during rest and during an action observation task. Baseline brain activity was measured followed by participants observing videos of hands squeezing stress balls. We used multiscale entropy (MSE) to quantify the complexity of the mu rhythm during MR. We then performed post-hoc graph theory analysis to explore whether nonlinear dynamics during MR affect brain network topology.Results: We found significant mu-desynchronization during the action observation task and that mu entropy was significantly increased during the task compared to rest, while gamma, beta, theta, and delta bands showed decreased entropy. Moreover, resting-state entropy was significantly predictive of the degree of mu desynchronization. We also observed a decrease in the clustering coefficient in the mu band only and a significant decrease in global alpha efficiency during action observation. MSE during action observation was strongly correlated with alpha network efficiency.Conclusions: The current findings suggest that the desynchronization of the mu wave during MR results in a local increase of mu entropy in sensorimotor areas, potentially reflecting a release from alpha inhibition. This release from inhibition may be mediated by the baseline MSE in the mu band. The dynamical complexity and network analysis of EEG may provide a useful addition for future studies of MR by incorporating measures of nonlinearity.

To evoke the impression of movement in the “immobile” image is one of the central motivations of the visual art, and the activating effect of images has been discussed in art psychology already some 100 years ago. However, this topic has up to now been largely neglected by the researchers in cognitive psychology and neuroscience. This study investigates – from an interdisciplinary perspective – the formation of lateralized instances of motion when an observer perceives movement in an image. A first step was to identify images that evoke a perception of movement in a certain direction and to give this a rating. Reaction times leading to the engagement of a joystick following the presentation of images are used to evidence the postulated movement occasioned by the perception of movement in an image. Where the required direction of joystick moves matched the expected perception of movement direction in the image, significantly shorter reaction times were recorded. The experiment was able to prove a “movement-image compatibility effect” in observers of images. Based on this, the paper revisits and brings up to date the theses on motor sensory response to images which were developed in art psychology at the beginning of the 20th century. It furthermore contributes an embodiment theory interpretation to the prevalent representational explanation of compatibility effects.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies of human primary motor cortex (M1) indicate an increase corticospinal excitability during the observation of another's action. This appears to be somewhat at odds with recordings of pyramidal tract neurons in primate M1 showing that there is a balance of increased and decreased activity across the population. TMS is known to recruit a mixed population of cortical neurons, and so one explanation for previous results is that TMS tends to recruit those excitatory output neurons whose activity is increased during action observation. Here we took advantage of the directional sensitivity of TMS to recruit different subsets of M1 neurons and probed whether they responded differentially to action observation in a manner consistent with the balanced change in activity in primates. At the group level we did not observe the expected increase in corticospinal excitability for either TMS current direction during the observation of a precision grip movement. Instead, we observed substantial inter-individual variability ranging from strong facilitation to strong suppression of corticospinal excitability that was similar across both current directions. Thus, we found no evidence of any differential changes in the excitability of distinct M1 neuronal populations during action observation. The most notable change in corticospinal excitability at the group level was a general increase, across muscles and current directions, when participants went from a baseline state outside the task to a baseline state within the actual observation task. We attribute this to arousal- or attention-related processes, which appear to have a similar effect on the different corticospinal pathways targeted by different TMS current directions. Finally, this rather non-specific increase in corticospinal excitability suggests care should be taken when selecting a “baseline” state against which to compare changes during action observation.

Understanding human motion, to infer the goal of others' actions, is thought to involve the observer's motor repertoire. One prominent class of actions, the human locomotion, has been object of several studies, all focused on manipulating the shape of degraded human figures like point-light walker (PLW) stimuli, represented as walking on the spot. Nevertheless, since the main goal of the locomotor function is to displace the whole body from one position to the other, these stimuli might not fully represent a goal-directed action and thus might not be able to induce the same motor resonance mechanism expected when observing a natural locomotion. To explore this hypothesis, we recorded the event-related potentials (ERP) of canonical/scrambled and translating/centered PLWs decoding. We individuated a novel ERP component (N2c) over central electrodes, around 435 ms after stimulus onset, for translating compared to centered PLW, only when the canonical shape was preserved. Consistently with our hypothesis, sources analysis associated this component to the activation of trunk and lower legs primary sensory-motor and supplementary motor areas. These results confirm the role of own motor repertoire in processing human action and suggest that ERP can detect the associated motor resonance only when the human figure is explicitly involved in performing a meaningful action.

To evoke the impression of movement in the “immobile” image is one of the central motivations of the visual art, and the activating effect of images has been discussed in art psychology already some 100 years ago. However, this topic has up to now been largely neglected by the researchers in cognitive psychology and neuroscience. This study investigates – from an interdisciplinary perspective – the formation of lateralized instances of motion when an observer perceives movement in an image. A first step was to identify images that evoke a perception of movement in a certain direction and to give this a rating. Reaction times leading to the engagement of a joystick following the presentation of images are used to evidence the postulated movement occasioned by the perception of movement in an image. Where the required direction of joystick moves matched the expected perception of movement direction in the image, significantly shorter reaction times were recorded. The experiment was able to prove a “movement-image compatibility effect” in observers of images. Based on this, the paper revisits and brings up to date the theses on motor sensory response to images which were developed in art psychology at the beginning of the 20th century. It furthermore contributes an embodiment theory interpretation to the prevalent representational explanation of compatibility effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Observation of movement activates the observer's own motor system, influencing the performance of actions and facilitating social interaction. This motor resonance is demonstrated behaviourally through visuomotor priming, whereby response latencies are influenced by the compatibility between an intended action and an observed (task‐irrelevant) action. The impact of movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD) on motor resonance is unclear, as previous studies of visuomotor priming have not separated imitative compatibility (specific to human movement) from general stimulus‐response compatibility effects. We examined visuomotor priming in 23 participants with mild‐to‐moderate PD and 24 healthy older adults, using a task that pitted imitative compatibility against general stimulus‐response compatibility. Participants made a key press after observing a task‐irrelevant moving human finger or rectangle that was either compatible or incompatible with their response. Imitative compatibility effects, rather than general stimulus‐response compatibility effects, were found specifically for the human finger. Moreover, imitative compatibility effects did not differ between groups, indicating intact motor resonance in the PD group. These findings constitute the first unambiguous demonstration of imitative priming in both PD and healthy ageing, and have implications for therapeutic techniques to facilitate action, as well as the understanding of social cognition in PD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dancers’ motions are perceived by observers through visual processes with visual information forming the basis for the observers’ appreciation and evaluation of the dancers’ motions. There have been many discussions as to whether or not observers’ personal athletic capabilities form an essential basis for accurate assessment of the motions of others but, so far, no valid conclusions have been reached. The purpose of this study is to investigate how the ability to predict motions of others varies depending on the athletic expertise of the observers. Participants of this research were ballet dancers of varying athletic expertise. Twenty seven participants were divided into three groups with nine in each: beginners, intermediate experts and experts. The participants watched the same dance video and then evaluated whether the motion would be successful or not. The movement related visual information required to evaluate the success of the motion was systematically adjusted by controlling the length of the video. Using the temporal occlusion method, this study measured the response accuracy of the participants by category of expertise. Under the circumstance with insufficient visual information to utilize, the experts showed higher rates of correct response than the intermediate experts and the beginners. The beginners showed higher rates of wrong response than the experts and the intermediate experts. These results showed that the ability to predict success or failure of a dance motion varied depending on motion expertise of the observers, although they had similar level of expertise in perception. Participants considered to have high athletic expertise showed high prediction ability on the result of the motion. In addition, high expertise in perception reduced the likelihood that participants would make hasty responses under the circumstance with insufficient information and helped to reduce wrong response rate. In conclusion, this study showed that motor expertise and perceptual expertise contribute to prediction accuracy of observed motions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]