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The degree to which landscape genetics findings can be extrapolated to different areas of a species range is poorly understood. Here, we used a broadly distributed ectothermic lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis, Western Fence lizard) as a model species to evaluate the full role of topography, climate, vegetation, and roads on dispersal and genetic differentiation. We conducted landscape genetics analyses with a total of 119 individuals in five areas within the Sierra Nevada mountain range. Genetic distances calculated from thousands of ddRAD markers were used to optimize landscape resistance surfaces and infer the effects of landscape and topographic features on genetic connectivity. Across study areas, we found a great deal of consistency in the primary environmental gradients impacting genetic connectivity, along with some site‐specific differences, and a range in the proportion of genetic variance explained by environmental factors across study sites. High‐elevation colder areas were consistently found to be barriers to gene flow, as were areas of high ruggedness and slope. High temperature seasonality and high precipitation during the winter wet season also presented a substantial barrier to gene flow in a majority of study areas. The effect of other landscape variables on genetic differentiation was more idiosyncratic and depended on specific attributes at each site. Across study areas, canyon valleys were always implicated as facilitators to dispersal and key features linking populations and maintaining genetic connectivity, though the relative importance varied in different areas. We emphasize that spatial data layers are complex and multidimensional, and careful consideration of spatial data correlation structure and robust analytic frameworks will be critical to our continued understanding of spatial genetics processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In long-lived species, deforestation can modify the genetic diversity patterns of recent populations. The spatial-structure genetics of Pinus leiophylla Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham. was investigated in adults and seedlings of remnant populations from central Mexico. Two chloroplast intergenic regions were sequenced of two cohorts (adults and seedlings) of 121 individuals of P. leiophylla from three localities. Higher genetic differentiation was found in adults (ФST = 0.09) than in seedlings (ФST = 0.03). The discriminant analysis of principal components detected four genetic clusters and the Mantel test found a weak but significant isolation by distance pattern (r2 = 0.05, p = 0.002). Sixteen percent of genetic variation was explained by the spatial component according to the genetic neighborhood analysis. And the effect of three landscape features, i.e., elevation, aspect (sine and cosine), and land use, explored with ResistanceGA, detected that land use significantly restricts gene flow between populations, mostly in the farming category. This study emphasizes the critical role of preserving forest cover to maintain connectivity among remnants of P. leiophylla. Insights of this study will contribute to the conservation of conifers in Mexican temperate forests, especially within landscapes heavily altered by human activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The development of natural habitats into urban land uses has greatly accelerated in the recent past due to human activities. This habitat development disrupts species' natural dispersal processes and can lead to both direct and indirect impacts on dispersal. Whether human activities result in restricted or facilitated dispersal may depend on a species' development tolerance; however, this premise has not been tested. We examined the impact of urbanization and road networks on the dispersal of three lizard species in the context of their development tolerance. Location: Curaçao. Methods: To quantify species' development tolerance, we modelled three lizard species abundances at sites based on surrounding landscape development. Using microsatellite genotypes, we conducted individual‐based resistance surface analyses and modelled the effect of habitat development on genetic admixture to assess indirect dispersal restriction and facilitation. We explored direct facilitation of dispersal using network analysis of mitochondrial haplotypes. Results: Phyllodactylus martini, a native gecko species, was the least tolerant of development and experienced indirect dispersal restriction due to roads, according to resistance surface analyses. Anolis lineatus, a native anole species, exhibited a neutral relationship with development. Resistance surfaces and Structure analyses showed that A. lineatus faced indirect dispersal restrictions from roads and developed areas, while mitochondrial haplotype networks suggested they benefited from occasional human‐facilitated long‐distance dispersal events. Hemidactylus mabouia, an introduced gecko species, was the most tolerant of development, and experienced no dispersal restriction, but mitochondrial haplotypes suggest direct long‐distance dispersal facilitation. Main Conclusions: Our findings highlight development tolerance as a key predictor of dispersal impact for these species and future work should test whether these patterns are upheld in other systems. Understanding how human activities affect species' dispersal will aid in managing introduced species while promoting connectivity for native species navigating dispersal challenges in dynamic landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective dispersal among plant populations is dependent on vector behaviour, landscape features and availability of adequate habitats. To capture landscape feature effects on dispersal, studies must be conducted at scales reflecting single‐generation dispersal events (mesoscale). Many studies are conducted at large scales where genetic differentiation is due to dispersal occurring over multiple generations, making it difficult to interpret the effects of specific landscape features on vector behaviour. Genetic structure at the mesoscale may be determined by ecological and evolutionary processes, such as the consequences of vector behaviour on patterns of gene flow. We used chloroplast haplotypes and nuclear genome SNP surveys to identify landscape features influencing seed and pollen dispersal at a mesoscale within the Rogue River Valley in southern Oregon. We evaluated biotic and abiotic vector behaviour by contrasting two annual species with differing dispersal mechanisms; Achyrachaena mollis (Asteraceae) is a self‐pollinating and anemochoric species, and Plectritis congesta (Caprifoliaceae) is biotically pollinated with barochoric seeds. Using landscape genetics methods, we identified features of the study region that conduct or restrict dispersal. We found chloroplast haplotypes were indicative of historic patterns of gene flow prior to human modification of landscapes. Seed dispersal of A. mollis was best supported by models of isolation by distance, while seed‐driven gene flow of P. congesta was determined by the distribution of preserved natural spaces and quality habitat. Nuclear genetic structure was driven by both pollen and seed dispersal, and both species responded to contemporary landscape changes, such as urban and agricultural conversion, and habitat availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: High‐elevation specialist species are threatened by climate change and habitat loss, and their distributions are becoming increasingly reduced and fragmented. In such a context, dispersal ability is crucial to maintain gene flow among patches of suitable habitat. However, information about dispersal is often lacking for these species, especially for those taxa that are usually considered as good dispersers such as birds. We adopted a landscape genomics approach to investigate dispersal in a climate‐sensitive high‐elevation specialist bird. Our aims were to assess the levels of gene flow within a wide mountain area, and to assess the effects of geographic distance and landscape characteristics on dispersal, by testing the isolation by distance (IBD) hypothesis against the isolation by resistance (IBR) hypothesis. Location: European Alps. Taxon: Montifringilla nivalis. Methods: We sampled individuals from several breeding areas and obtained single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data by ddRAD sequencing. We then calculated site‐ and individual level genetic distances and individual inbreeding coefficients. To test IBD versus IBR, we related genetic distances to both geographic distances and different measures of landscape resistance by using maximum likelihood population effects models. Results: Gene flow among breeding areas was partly restricted, and we found support for IBD, indicating that geographic distance limits snowfinch dispersal. Spatial patterns of genetic distances suggested that philopatry strongly contributed to determine the observed IBD. High inbreeding coefficients in several individuals indicated frequent mating among relatives. Main Conclusions: Restricted dispersal and frequent inbreeding within 'sky island' systems can also occur in highly mobile species, because their potential ability to cover very large distances can be counteracted by high philopatry levels that are likely related to high dispersal costs. IBD and philopatry will increasingly hinder snowfinch dispersal among suitable areas within the future more restricted and fragmented breeding range, increasing the risks of local extinctions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Determining factors that shape a species' population genetic structure is beneficial for identifying effective conservation practices. We assessed population structure and genetic diversity for Saltmarsh Sparrow (Ammospiza caudacuta), an imperiled tidal marsh specialist, using 13 microsatellite markers and 964 individuals sampled from 24 marshes across the breeding range. We show that Saltmarsh Sparrow populations are structured regionally by isolation-by-distance, with gene flow occurring among marshes within ~110 to 135 km of one another. Isolation-by-resistance and isolation-by-environment also shape genetic variation; several habitat and landscape features are associated with genetic diversity and genetic divergence among populations. Human development in the surrounding landscape isolates breeding marshes, reducing genetic diversity, and increasing population genetic divergence, while surrounding marshland and patch habitat quality (proportion high marsh and sea-level-rise trend) have the opposite effect. The distance of the breeding marsh to the Atlantic Ocean also influences genetic variation, with marshes farther inland being more divergent than coastal marshes. In northern marshes, hybridization with Nelson's Sparrow (A. nelsoni) strongly influences Saltmarsh Sparrow genetic variation, by increasing genetic diversity in the population; this has a concomitant effect of increasing genetic differentiation of marshes with high levels of introgression. From a conservation perspective, we found that the majority of population clusters have low effective population sizes, suggesting a lack of resiliency. To conserve the representative breadth of genetic and ecological diversity and to ensure redundancy of populations, it will be important to protect a diversity of marsh types across the latitudinal gradient of the species range, including multiple inland, coastal, and urban populations, which we have shown to exhibit signals of genetic differentiation. It will also require maintaining connectivity at a regional level, by promoting high marsh habitat at the scale of gene flow (~130 km), while also ensuring "stepping stone" populations across the range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) are a destructive and widespread invasive pest in Australia. An understanding of feral pig movement is required to develop management strategies to control feral pigs in Australia. Because landscape structure can have a strong influence on animal movement, it is important to determine how landscape features facilitate or impede the movement of feral pigs. Consequently, we conducted a landscape genetic analysis of feral pig populations in the Herbert region of far north Queensland, Australia, to determine management units and provide recommendations to better inform feral pig population control strategies. Using microsatellite data obtained from 256 feral pig samples from 44 sites, we examined feral pig population structure at multiple spatial scales for univariate and multivariate landscape resistance surfaces to determine the optimal spatial scale and to identify which of the nine landscape features tested impede or facilitate feral pig gene flow. Only weak genetic structure was found among the 44 sampling sites, but major waterways were identified as a minor barrier to gene flow, and an isolation by distance model was supported. We also found that highways facilitated gene flow across the study area, and this suggests that they may act as movement corridors or indicate translocation of feral pigs. Additionally, incorporating a second spatial scale enhanced the ability of our landscape genetics analysis to detect the influence of landscape structure on gene flow. We identified three management units based on natural barriers to gene flow and future targeted control should be undertaken in these management units to deliver sustained reduction of feral pig populations in the Herbert region. This study demonstrates how a landscape genetic approach can be used to gain insight into the ecology of an invasive pest species and be used to develop population control strategies which utilise natural barriers to movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Current genetic variation and differentiation are expected to reflect the effects of past rather than present landscapes due to time lags, that is, the time necessary for genetic diversity to reach equilibrium and reflect demography. Time lags can affect our ability to infer landscape use and model connectivity and also obscure the genetic consequences of recent landscape changes. In this work, we test whether past forest cover better explains contemporary patterns of genetic differentiation in two closely related but ecologically distinct newt species—Lissotriton montandoni and L. vulgaris. Location: Carpathian Mountains and foothills. Methods: Genetic differentiation between populations was related to landscape resistance optimized with tools from landscape genetics, for multiple timeframes, using forest‐cover data from 1963 to 2015. Analyses were conducted for pairs of populations at distances from 1 to 50 km. Results: We find evidence for a time lag in L. montandoni, with forest cover from 40 years ago (ca. 10 newt generations) better explaining current genetic differentiation. In L. vulgaris, current genetic differentiation was better predicted by present land‐cover models with lower resistance given to open forests. This result may reflect the generalist ecology of L. vulgaris, its lower effective population sizes and exposure to habitat destruction and fragmentation. Main Conclusions: Our study provides evidence for time lags in L. montandoni, showing that the genetic consequences of landscape change for some species are not yet evident. Our findings highlight the interspecific variation in time lag prevalence and demonstrate that current patterns of genetic differentiation should be interpreted in the context of historical landscape changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Prioritizing regions that facilitate connectivity among populations is an essential principle for conservation planning. However, the lack of conspicuous geographical and environmental features that constrain dispersal and gene flow throughout life history challenges the characterization of dispersal pathways within a three-dimensional marine realm. Objectives: To elucidate regions of high connectivity value in the marine environment, we develop a novel approach that integrates estimates of spatial genetic structure with representation of regions of high dispersal potential for meroplankton, incorporating elements of pelagic larval and benthic adult life history. Methods: Spatial patterns of connectivity were characterized using circuit theory as an inverse function oceanographic- and habitat-based resistance to movement. We integrate emergent spatial patterns of connectivity with population genetic data to account for realized patterns of gene flow across a seascape. We apply this approach to four broadly distributed species in the Northwest Atlantic. Results: Estimates of resistance to gene flow revealed multiple connectivity barriers not observed in oceanographic or habitat models. Comparison of isolation-by-distance versus isolation-by-resistance revealed genetic variation was best explained by seascape resistance in three of four species, supporting the resistance-based assessments of connectivity. Our approach identified areas of high and low connectivity value for each species, with overlap generally associated with geographic pinch points and areas of low genetic exchange. Conclusions: By integrating spatial interpolations of gene flow and estimated pathways for dispersal, we develop a novel area-based metric of connectivity that considers life-history based structural constraints to dispersal and observed genetic variation. Outputs from this workflow can reveal regions of connectivity for conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban grasslands provide numerous ecosystem services, and their maintenance should be based on naturally regenerating plant populations. However, the urban environment is challenging for preserving viable populations, mostly because of their high fragmentation and small size, which can lead to genetic drift. We examined red clover (Trifolium pratense) in a medium-size city in Central Europe to test the cityscape effect on within- and among-population genetic diversity. We used eight inter-simple sequence repeat markers to examine the genetic structure of 16 populations, each represented by eight individuals. The isolation by resistance was analysed using a least cost patch approach, focusing on gene flow via pollinators. We found great variation among T. pratense populations, with no discernible geographic pattern in genetic diversity. We linked the diversity to the long history of the city and high stochasticity of land use changes that occurred with city development. In particular, we did not find that the Odra River (ca. 100mwide) was a strong barrier to gene transfer. However, notable isolation was present due to resistance and distance, indicating that the populations are threatened by genetic drift. Therefore, gene movement between populations should be increased by appropriate management of urban green areas. We also found that small urban grassland (UG) patches with small populations can still hold rare alleles which significantly contribute to the overall genetic variation of T. pratense in the city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractFeral pigs (Sus scrofa) are a destructive and widespread invasive pest in Australia. An understanding of feral pig movement is required to develop management strategies to control feral pigs in Australia. Because landscape structure can have a strong influence on animal movement, it is important to determine how landscape features facilitate or impede the movement of feral pigs. Consequently, we conducted a landscape genetic analysis of feral pig populations in the Herbert region of far north Queensland, Australia, to determine management units and provide recommendations to better inform feral pig population control strategies. Using microsatellite data obtained from 256 feral pig samples from 44 sites, we examined feral pig population structure at multiple spatial scales for univariate and multivariate landscape resistance surfaces to determine the optimal spatial scale and to identify which of the nine landscape features tested impede or facilitate feral pig gene flow. Only weak genetic structure was found among the 44 sampling sites, but major waterways were identified as a minor barrier to gene flow, and an isolation by distance model was supported. We also found that highways facilitated gene flow across the study area, and this suggests that they may act as movement corridors or indicate translocation of feral pigs. Additionally, incorporating a second spatial scale enhanced the ability of our landscape genetics analysis to detect the influence of landscape structure on gene flow. We identified three management units based on natural barriers to gene flow and future targeted control should be undertaken in these management units to deliver sustained reduction of feral pig populations in the Herbert region. This study demonstrates how a landscape genetic approach can be used to gain insight into the ecology of an invasive pest species and be used to develop population control strategies which utilise natural barriers to movement.

Habitat destruction and fragmentation are major factors in the destruction of genetic diversity and affect the movement behavior of the Roe deer population in the remaining habitats. Here, we study the population and landscape genetics of Capreolus capreolus (roe deer) in northern and northwestern Iran using twelve polymorphism microsatellite markers. From 111 total specimens, 63 had successful extraction (6 feces, 35 tissues, 9 bones, and 13 antlers). We considered 30 microsatellite polymorphic loci, of which only 12 were amplified for our further analysis. For genetic diversity analysis, the Weir-Cockerham method was applied to measure the inbreeding coefficient (FIS) and fixation index (FST) for each locus as well as for each population. For landscape genetics, the susceptibility patterns of genetic variations were assessed using three hypotheses including isolation by distance (IBD), isolation by environment (IBE), isolation by resistance (IBR), and individual landscape genetic analysis. A habitat suitability map as an indicator of landscape resistance was constructed from several species distribution models (SDMs) algorithms including Generalized Boosting Models (GBM), Maximum Entropy (Maxent), Random Forest (RF), Generalized Linear Model (GLM), Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) and artificial neural networks (ANN) and an ensemble model. Our estimated FIs index showed that the Golestan, Arasbaran, and Guilan populations had the highest and lowest genetic diversity among roe deer populations. According to the Fst criterion, our results showed that Golestan and East Azarbaijan (Arasbaran) had the highest and Mazandaran had the lowest genetic distance patterns. Our results do not suggest that there is high genetic differentiation for roe deer in the region, with high levels of gene flow between study areas. We found that geographic distance has no significant relationship with genetic distance and that there is no significant relationship between the ecological niche non-similarity matrix and the genetic distance matrix. The most influential factors affecting gene flow in roe deer were aspect and elevation variables. The analysis suggests that the landscape has no significant influence on the structuring of the studied population and shows little genetic differentiation.

Urban grasslands provide numerous ecosystem services, and their maintenance should be based on naturally regenerating plant populations. However, the urban environment is challenging for preserving viable populations, mostly because of their high fragmentation and small size, which can lead to genetic drift. We examined red clover (Trifolium pratense) in a medium-size city in Central Europe to test the cityscape effect on within- and among-population genetic diversity. We used eight inter-simple sequence repeat markers to examine the genetic structure of 16 populations, each represented by eight individuals. The isolation by resistance was analysed using a least cost patch approach, focusing on gene flow via pollinators. We found great variation among T. pratense populations, with no discernible geographic pattern in genetic diversity. We linked the diversity to the long history of the city and high stochasticity of land use changes that occurred with city development. In particular, we did not find that the Odra River (ca. 100 m wide) was a strong barrier to gene transfer. However, notable isolation was present due to resistance and distance, indicating that the populations are threatened by genetic drift. Therefore, gene movement between populations should be increased by appropriate management of urban green areas. We also found that small urban grassland (UG) patches with small populations can still hold rare alleles which significantly contribute to the overall genetic variation of T. pratense in the city.

Ecologically distinct species may respond to landscape changes in different ways. In addition to basic ecological data, the extent of the geographic range has been successfully used as an indicator of species sensitivity to anthropogenic landscapes, with widespread species usually found to be less sensitive compared to range‐restricted species. In this study, we investigate connectivity patterns of two closely related but ecologically distinct newt species – the range‐restricted, Lissotriton montandoni and the widespread, L. vulgaris – using genomic data, a highly replicated setting (six geographic regions per species), and tools from landscape genetics. Our results show the importance of forest for connectivity in both species, but at the same time suggest differential use of forested habitat, with L. montandoni and L. vulgaris showing the highest connectivity at forest‐core and forest‐edges, respectively. Anthropogenic landscapes (i.e., higher crop‐ or urban‐cover) increased resistance in both species, but the effect was one to three orders of magnitude stronger in L. montandoni than in L. vulgaris. This result is consistent with a view of L. vulgaris as an ecological generalist. Even so, currently, the negative impact of anthropogenic landscapes is mainly seen in connectivity among L. vulgaris populations, which show significantly stronger isolation and lower effective sizes relative to L. montandoni. Overall, this study emphasizes how habitat destruction is compromising genetic connectivity not only in endemic, range‐restricted species of conservation concern but also in widespread generalist species, despite their comparatively lower sensitivity to anthropogenic landscape changes. see also the Perspective by Kristen N. Finch and Adam D. Leache [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic differentiation between and within natural populations is the result of the joint effects of neutral and adaptative processes. In addition, the spatial arrangement of the landscape promotes connectivity or creates barriers to gene flow, directly affecting speciation processes. In this study, we carried out a landscape genomics analysis using NextRAD data from a montane forest specialist bird complex, the Mesoamerican Chestnut‐capped/Green‐striped Brushfinch of the genus Arremon. Specifically, we examined population genomic structure using different assignment methods and genomic differentiation and diversity, and we tested alternative genetic isolation hypotheses at the individual level (e.g., isolation by barrier, IBB; isolation by environment, IBE; isolation by resistance, IBR). We found well‐delimited genomic structuring (K = 5) across Mesoamerican montane forests in the studied group. Individual‐level genetic distances among major montane ranges were mainly explained by IBR hypotheses in this sedentary Neotropical taxon. Our results uncover genetic distances/differentiation and patterns of gene flow in allopatric species that support the role of tropical mountains as spatial landscape drivers of biodiversity. IBR clearly supports a pattern of conserved niche‐tracking of suitable habitat conditions and topographic complexity throughout glacial‐interglacial dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: The accurate estimation of landscape resistance to movement is important for ecological understanding and conservation applications. Rigorous estimation of resistance requires validation and optimization. One approach uses genetic data for the optimization or validation of resistance models. Objectives: We used a genetic dataset of snow leopards from China to evaluate how landscape genetics resistance models varied across genetic distances and spatial scales of analysis. We evaluated whether landscape genetics models were superior to models of resistance derived from habitat suitability or isolation-by-distance. Methods: We regressed genetically optimized, habitat-based, and isolation-by-distance hypotheses against genetic distances using mixed effect models. We explored all subset combinations of genetically optimized variables to find the most supported resistance scenario for each genetic distance. Results: Genetically optimized models always outperformed habitat-based and isolation-by-distance hypotheses. The choice of genetic distances influenced the apparent influence of variables, their spatial scales and their functional response shapes, producing divergent resistance scenarios. Gene flow in snow leopards was largely facilitated by areas of intermediate ruggedness at intermediate elevations corresponding to small-to-large valleys within and between the mountain ranges. Conclusions: This study highlights that landscape genetics models provide superior estimation of functional dispersal than habitat surrogates and suggests that optimization of genetic distance should be included as an optimization routine in landscape genetics, along with variables, scales, effect size and functional response shape. Furthermore, our study provides new insights on the ecological conditions that promote gene flow in snow leopards, which expands ecological knowledge, and we hope will improve conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how changes in landscape properties influence common species is relevant as it allows us to identify patterns that could be shared with co-distributed species that occupy the same landscapes. The northeastern United States (NE-USA: New York state and the six states of New England) is heavily urbanized and affected by continuous and prolonged anthropogenic activities, leading to intensive landscape fragmentation and loss of natural forests. Here, we used a landscape genetics approach to explore the genetic diversity and structure of the Southern Flying Squirrel, Glaucomys volans , and how resulting patterns may be related to landscape fragmentation and forest loss in the NE-USA. To study G. volans genetic variation and population structure, we amplified and genotyped 10 microsatellites loci from DNA extracted from tissue samples stored in biological collections and natural history museums. To assess the influence of landscape on gene flow and connectivity, we used two genetic distances metrics–proportion of shared alleles and codominant marker, and tested two landscape cost models approaches–least cost path and isolation by resistance. We identified three genetic clusters, with low but significant genetic differentiation between them. We did not find correlation between geographic distance and genetic variation in these populations. According to landscape models, land cover and elevation were the best predictors of genetic connectivity of G. volans , although were poorly related to genetic distances. Our results suggest that gene flow occurs between G. volans populations across the NE-USA despite the changed landscape configuration, implying potential dispersal of individuals between patches. Nonetheless, individuals from the eastern periphery of the distribution may have been temporarily isolated in the past due to historical deforestation. The current regeneration of hardwood forests represents a positive outlook for the genetic integrity of G. volans populations in the NE-USA because more possibilities for corridors and patches of habitable forests emerge. These changes would improve the connectivity of the species in the region and avoid possible local extinction events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding landscape connectivity has become a global priority for mitigating the impact of landscape fragmentation on biodiversity. Connectivity methods that use link‐based methods traditionally rely on relating pairwise genetic distance between individuals or demes to their landscape distance (e.g., geographic distance, cost distance). In this study, we present an alternative to conventional statistical approaches to refine cost surfaces by adapting the gradient forest approach to produce a resistance surface. Used in community ecology, gradient forest is an extension of random forest, and has been implemented in genomic studies to model species genetic offset under future climatic scenarios. By design, this adapted method, resGF, has the ability to handle multiple environmental predicators and is not subjected to traditional assumptions of linear models such as independence, normality and linearity. Using genetic simulations, resistance Gradient Forest (resGF) performance was compared to other published methods (maximum likelihood population effects model, random forest‐based least‐cost transect analysis and species distribution model). In univariate scenarios, resGF was able to distinguish the true surface contributing to genetic diversity among competing surfaces better than the compared methods. In multivariate scenarios, the gradient forest approach performed similarly to the other random forest‐based approach using least‐cost transect analysis but outperformed MLPE‐based methods. Additionally, two worked examples are provided using two previously published data sets. This machine learning algorithm has the potential to improve our understanding of landscape connectivity and inform long‐term biodiversity conservation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both asexual and sexual reproduction can provide important keys to the success of invasive species. A species with potential for both is lesser celandine (Ficaria verna), a European native with multiple subspecies that have been introduced in North America as ornamentals and escaped cultivation. Asexual reproduction via bulbils is prolific in many introduced populations of lesser celandine, with sexual reproduction reportedly rare. Although genetic and morphological diversity of European celandine has been studied, few have examined invasive North American populations. We aimed to document introduced genotypic and phenotypic diversity at a regional scale. We first compared sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) genotypes of 64 individuals collected from Columbus, Cincinnati, and Cleveland, OH. In a second experiment, we phenotyped 129 individuals from the same regions and from Louisville, KY, measuring traits in an outdoor common garden experiment. The SRAP markers were highly polymorphic and revealed surprising genetic differentiation. Genetic and trait variation were both structured across regions, but we also saw high variation within regions. Cleveland populations differed the most genetically and morphologically. Nearly every individual made asexual bulbils, and many individuals that flowered produced expanded achenes. Trait data suggested subspecies verna or ficariiformis occur in these regions. Genetic admixture within regions and within individuals, along with achene expansion, suggests sexual reproduction may be widespread. Sexual and asexual propagules may spread by different vectors, and our resistance analyses indicated water dispersal and habitat availability contribute to genetic structure. These findings suggest that celandine has substantial potential for further spread and evolutionary change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organisms adapted to open environments in South America have recently been used to understand the origins of the high Neotropical biodiversity. In the Caatinga, the largest continuous block of Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in South America, phylogeographic studies have uncovered the role of historical climate changes and rivers (i.e., the São Francisco River, the largest perennial river in Caatinga), in promoting genetic differentiation and speciation of lizards and amphibians. We used mitochondrial data, demographic analyses, paleodistribution models, and landscape genetic methods to test the effects of spatial distances, historical climate fluctuations, and landscape heterogeneity on the genetic variation of the generalist lizard Tropidurus hispidus in the semi-arid Caatinga in northeastern Brazil. Four haplogroups with moderate geographical structure diverged in the Pleistocene, and exhibited high genetic diversity. Ecological niche models revealed large suitable climatic areas for T. hispidus in the past 790 thousand years, connecting the Caatinga and other regions via a narrow corridor. Part of the genetic differentiation in T. hispidus resulted from spatial distances among populations and isolation by resistance through climatic unsuitability areas in the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), which probably reduced population connectivity and gene flow. Our findings highlight the role of the historical factors of the Caatinga, through LGM climate, and the generalist condition of species in shaping the genealogical histories of populations. Although the results are based on a single-locus approach, our study is a first step to shed light on the main drivers of the evolutionary history of T. hispidus, in a highly diverse and still poorly studied region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Human activity continues to impact global ecosystems, often by altering the habitat suitability, persistence, and movement of native species. It is thus critical to examine the population genetic structure of key ecosystemservice providers across human‐altered landscapes to provide insight into the forces that limit wildlife persistence and movement across multiple spatial scales. While some studies have documented declines of bee pollinators as a result of human‐mediated habitat alteration, others suggest that some bee species may benefit from altered land use due to increased food or nesting resource availability; however, detailed population and dispersal studies have been lacking. We investigated the population genetic structure of the Eastern carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica, across 14 sites spanning more than 450 km, including dense urban areas and intensive agricultural habitat. X. virginica is a large bee which constructs nests in natural and human‐associated wooden substrates, and is hypothesized to disperse broadly across urbanizing areas. Using 10 microsatellite loci, we detected significant genetic isolation by geographic distance and significant isolation by land use, where urban and cultivated landscapes were most conducive to gene flow. This is one of the first population genetic analyses to provide evidence of enhanced insect dispersal in human‐altered areas as compared to semi‐natural landscapes. We found moderate levels of regional‐scale population structure across the study system (GʹST = 0.146) and substantial co‐ancestry between the sampling regions, where co‐ancestry patterns align with major human transportation corridors, suggesting that human‐mediated movement may be influencing regional dispersal processes. Additionally, we found a signature of strong site‐level philopatry where our analyses revealed significant levels of high genetic relatedness at very fine scales (

In modern wildlife ecology, spatial population genetic methods are becoming increasingly applied. Especially for animal species in fragmented landscapes, preservation of gene flow becomes a high priority target in order to restore genetic diversity and prevent local extinction. Within Central Europe, the Alps represent the core distribution area of the black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix. At its easternmost Alpine range, events of subpopulation extinction have already been documented in the past decades. Molecular data combined with spatial analyses can help to assess landscape effects on genetic variation and therefore can be informative for conservation management. Here, we addressed whether the genetic pattern of the easternmost Alpine black grouse metapopulation system is driven by isolation by distance or isolation by resistance. Correlative ecological niche modeling was used to assess geographic distances and landscape resistances. We then applied regression‐based approaches combined with population genetic analyses based on microsatellite data to disentangle effects of isolation by distance and isolation by resistance among individuals and subpopulations. Although population genetic analyses revealed overall low levels of genetic differentiation, the ecological niche modeling showed subpopulations to be clearly delimited by habitat structures. Spatial genetic variation could be attributed to effects of isolation by distance among individuals and isolation by resistance among subpopulations, yet unknown effects might factor in. The easternmost subpopulation was the most differentiated, and at the same time, immigration was not detected; hence, its long‐term survival might be threatened. Our study provides valuable insights into the spatial genetic variation of this small‐scale metapopulation system of Alpine black grouse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Understanding how the landscape influences gene flow is important in explaining biodiversity, especially when co-distributed taxa across heterogeneous landscapes exhibit species-specific habitat associations. Here, we test predictions about the effects of forest-type on population connectivity in two sympatric species of spiny rats that differ in their forest associations. Specifically, we evaluate the hypothesis that seasonal floodplain forests (várzea) provide linear connectivity, facilitating gene flow among individuals, while non-flooded forests (terra-firme) may diminish the functional connectivity. Location: Western Amazon, South America. Taxon: Proechimys simonsi (non-flooded forests, terra-firme) and Proechimys steerei (seasonal floodplain forests, várzea). Methods: We analyse about 13,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms along with characterizations of landscape heterogeneity for two forest types to test for differences in the functional connectivity. Influence of the landscape and environmental variables are quantified using maximum-likelihood population effect models to identify the relative importance of variables in explaining the gene flow. Results: There are significant differences in functional connectivity between species. However, the genomic data does not support the conventional hypotheses of higher connectivity for inhabitants of várzea than those of terra-firme. Stronger genetic structure in P. steerei than P. simonsi based on isolation by distance models suggests reduced gene flow in species associated with várzea forests. Isolation by resistance reinforces that wet-land habitats inhibit and promote the functional connectivity in P. simonsi and P. steerei, respectively, although large distances along the rivers can prevent gene flow in P. steerei. Main conclusion: Interpreting differences between connectivity in taxa apparent from genetic analyses through the lens of a single dimension of Amazonian heterogeneity--that is, forest type--may be an oversimplification. Our statistical modelling and fit of the data to different models points to specific environmental and habitat differences between the ecological divergent spiny rat species that may contribute to differences in the genetic structure of these sympatric taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In modern wildlife ecology, spatial population genetic methods are becoming increasingly applied. Especially for animal species in fragmented landscapes, preservation of gene flow becomes a high priority target in order to restore genetic diversity and prevent local extinction. Within Central Europe, the Alps represent the core distribution area of the black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix. At its easternmost Alpine range, events of subpopulation extinction have already been documented in the past decades. Molecular data combined with spatial analyses can help to assess landscape effects on genetic variation and therefore can be informative for conservation management. Here, we addressed whether the genetic pattern of the easternmost Alpine black grouse metapopulation system is driven by isolation by distance or isolation by resistance. Correlative ecological niche modeling was used to assess geographic distances and landscape resistances. We then applied regression‐based approaches combined with population genetic analyses based on microsatellite data to disentangle effects of isolation by distance and isolation by resistance among individuals and subpopulations. Although population genetic analyses revealed overall low levels of genetic differentiation, the ecological niche modeling showed subpopulations to be clearly delimited by habitat structures. Spatial genetic variation could be attributed to effects of isolation by distance among individuals and isolation by resistance among subpopulations, yet unknown effects might factor in. The easternmost subpopulation was the most differentiated, and at the same time, immigration was not detected; hence, its long‐term survival might be threatened. Our study provides valuable insights into the spatial genetic variation of this small‐scale metapopulation system of Alpine black grouse.

Understanding the genetic responses of different species to the landscape attributes is essential to improve conservation actions and decision-making. However, making generalizations about such responses is not trivial, since they can be influenced by several factors. Aspects related to landscape matrix quality, for example, such as contrast and heterogeneity, may play a relevant role in the spatial-genetic structuring of populations since functional connectivity is influenced by the degree of matrix permeability. Intending to identify trends of genetic responses to habitat fragmentation and the aspects influencing these responses, we employed a meta-analytical approach to investigate the degree of genetic structuring of small mammal populations, measured through the fixation index (FST), in anthropogenic landscapes. For this, we obtained data of 28 species from 38 studies worldwide. We investigated the heterogeneity among species' responses by focusing on the influence of matrix quality (contrast and heterogeneity), and species' life-history traits (mean dispersal distance, generation time, and locomotor mode), controlling the influence of the marker type used in the study and the isolation by distance (IBD) among the patches habitat. We found a consistent pattern of genetic structuring of small mammal populations in anthropogenic landscapes, which present a significant genetic differentiation. Genetic structure is mostly influenced by matrix quality characteristics so that populations established in landscapes with high contrast and more heterogeneous matrices tend to be more structured. Also, populations of species with long generation time and high dispersal capacity exhibit a greater degree of genetic structure. Besides, accounting for IBD as a fixed effect was crucial to understand the variation among studies' findings. Thus, the degree of genetic structuring of small mammal populations reflects the functional connectivity of the landscape, resulting from a balance between landscape attributes (matrix contrast and heterogeneity) and species' life-history traits. Overall, our findings suggest that small mammals may be more susceptible to fragmentation than previously recognized, calling for special attention to this group considering their importance to maintain community structure and ecosystem functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geographic isolation is among the most important factors initiating speciation in mammals. The narrow-headed vole Lasiopodomys gregalis is a widely distributed species in steppe habitats of South Siberia that are highly fragmented by mountain ranges. There are three major mostly allopatric mitochondrial lineages of L. gregalis described throughout the distribution range that most plausibly split in the Middle Pleistocene. This study applies the analysis of five microsatellite loci and species distribution modelling to understand the patterns of isolation and migration between L. gregalis populations in South Siberia and in particular in Tuva basin where all three lineages occur simultaneously. Microsatellite analysis supported the population differentiation revealed previously, with three clusters corresponding to mitochondrial lineages and indicated that gene flow between them is strongly limited. There were only traces of hybridisation in the population near the contact zone of lineages B and C. SDM analysis predicted only a small number of potential contact zones between L. gregalis lineages and barriers corresponding to landscape heterogeneity. We presume that the forested mountain ranges act as the main insurmountable barriers to gene flow between major genetic lineages of L. gregalis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Habitat degradation and climate change are currently threatening wild pollinators, compromising their ability to provide pollination services to wild and cultivated plants. Landscape genomics offers powerful tools to assess the influence of landscape modifications on genetic diversity and functional connectivity, and to identify adaptations to local environmental conditions that could facilitate future bee survival. Here, we assessed range‐wide patterns of genetic structure, genetic diversity, gene flow, and local adaptation in the stingless bee Melipona subnitida, a tropical pollinator of key biological and economic importance inhabiting one of the driest and hottest regions of South America. Our results reveal four genetic clusters across the species’ full distribution range. All populations were found to be under a mutation–drift equilibrium, and genetic diversity was not influenced by the amount of reminiscent natural habitats. However, genetic relatedness was spatially autocorrelated and isolation by landscape resistance explained range‐wide relatedness patterns better than isolation by geographic distance, contradicting earlier findings for stingless bees. Specifically, gene flow was enhanced by increased thermal stability, higher forest cover, lower elevations, and less corrugated terrains. Finally, we detected genomic signatures of adaptation to temperature, precipitation, and forest cover, spatially distributed in latitudinal and altitudinal patterns. Taken together, our findings shed important light on the life history of M. subnitida and highlight the role of regions with large thermal fluctuations, deforested areas, and mountain ranges as dispersal barriers. Conservation actions such as restricting long‐distance colony transportation, preserving local adaptations, and improving the connectivity between highlands and lowlands are likely to assure future pollination services.

Abstract The amount of dispersal that occurs among populations can be limited by landscape heterogeneity, which is often due to both natural processes and anthropogenic activity leading to habitat loss or fragmentation. Understanding how populations are structured and mapping existing dispersal corridors among populations is imperative to both determining contemporary forces mediating population connectivity, and informing proper management of species with fragmented populations. Furthermore, the contemporary processes mediating gene flow across heterogeneous landscapes on a large scale are understudied, particularly with respect to widespread species. This study focuses on a widespread game bird, the Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus), for which we analyzed samples from the western extent of the range. Using three types of genetic markers, we uncovered multiple factors acting in concert that are responsible for mediating contemporary population connectivity in this species. Multiple genetically distinct groups were detected; microsatellite markers revealed six groups, and a mitochondrial marker revealed four. Many populations of Ruffed Grouse are genetically isolated, likely by macrogeographic barriers. Furthermore, the addition of landscape genetic methods not only corroborated genetic structure results, but also uncovered compelling evidence that dispersal resistance created by areas of unsuitable habitat is the most important factor mediating population connectivity among the sampled populations. This research has important implications for both our study species and other inhabitants of the early successional forest habitat preferred by Ruffed Grouse. Moreover, it adds to a growing body of evidence that isolation by resistance is more prevalent in shaping population structure of widespread species than previously thought.

Landscape heterogeneity can shape genetic structure and functional connectivity of populations. When this heterogeneity imposes variable costs of moving across the landscape, populations can be structured according to a pattern of "isolation by resistance" (IBR). At the same time, divergent local environmental filters can limit gene flow, creating an alternative pattern of "isolation by environment" (IBE). Here, we evaluate IBR and IBE in the insect‐pollinated, biennial plant Sabatia angularis (L.) Pursh (Gentianaceae) across serpentine grasslands in the fragmented landscape of SE Pennsylvania, USA using ~4500 neutral SNP loci. Specifically, we test the extent to which radical alteration of the landscape matrix by humans has fundamentally altered the cost of movement, imprinting a pattern of IBR dictated by land use type and intensity, and the potential for IBE in relation to a gradient of heavy metal concentrations found in serpentine soil. We reveal a strong signal of IBR and a weak signal of IBE across sites, indicating the greater importance of the landscape matrix in shaping genetic structure of S. angularis populations in the study region. Based on Circuitscape and least cost path approaches, we find that both low‐ and high‐intensity urbanization resist gene flow by orders of magnitude greater than "natural" habitats, although resistance to low‐intensity urbanization weakens at larger spatial scales. While cropland presents a substantially lower barrier than urban development, cumulative human land use surrounding populations predicts within‐population genetic diversity and inbreeding in S. angularis. Our results emphasize the role of forest buffers and corridors in facilitating gene flow between serpentine grassland patches and averting local extinction of plant populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human activity continues to impact global ecosystems, often by altering the habitat suitability, persistence, and movement of native species. It is thus critical to examine the population genetic structure of key ecosystemservice providers across human‐altered landscapes to provide insight into the forces that limit wildlife persistence and movement across multiple spatial scales. While some studies have documented declines of bee pollinators as a result of human‐mediated habitat alteration, others suggest that some bee species may benefit from altered land use due to increased food or nesting resource availability; however, detailed population and dispersal studies have been lacking. We investigated the population genetic structure of the Eastern carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica, across 14 sites spanning more than 450 km, including dense urban areas and intensive agricultural habitat. X. virginica is a large bee which constructs nests in natural and human‐associated wooden substrates, and is hypothesized to disperse broadly across urbanizing areas. Using 10 microsatellite loci, we detected significant genetic isolation by geographic distance and significant isolation by land use, where urban and cultivated landscapes were most conducive to gene flow. This is one of the first population genetic analyses to provide evidence of enhanced insect dispersal in human‐altered areas as compared to semi‐natural landscapes. We found moderate levels of regional‐scale population structure across the study system (GʹST = 0.146) and substantial co‐ancestry between the sampling regions, where co‐ancestry patterns align with major human transportation corridors, suggesting that human‐mediated movement may be influencing regional dispersal processes. Additionally, we found a signature of strong site‐level philopatry where our analyses revealed significant levels of high genetic relatedness at very fine scales (<1 km), surprising given X. virginica's large body size. These results provide unique genetic evidence that insects can simultaneously exhibit substantial regional dispersal as well as high local nesting fidelity in landscapes dominated by human activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Functional connectivity of semiaquatic species is poorly studied despite that freshwater ecosystems are amongst the most threatened worldwide due to habitat deterioration. The Neotropical otter, Lontra longicaudis, is a threatened species that represents a good model to evaluate the effect of landscape-riverscape features on genetic structure and gene flow of freshwater species. Objectives: We aimed to assess the spatial genetic structure of L. longicaudis and to evaluate the landscape-riverscape attributes that shape its genetic structure and gene flow at local sites (habitat patches) and between sites (landscape matrix). Methods: We conducted the study in three basins located in Veracruz, Mexico, which have a high degree of ecosystem deterioration. We used a non-invasive genetic sampling and a landscape genetics individual-based approach to test the effect stream hierarchical structure, isolation-by-distance, and isolation-by-resistance on genetic structure and gene flow. Results: We found genetic structure that corresponded to the latitudinal and altitudinal heterogeneity of the landscape and riverscape, as well as to the hierarchical structure of the streams. Open areas and steep slopes were the variables affecting genetic structure at local sites, whereas areas with suitable habitat conditions, higher ecosystem integrity and larger streams enhanced gene flow between sites. Conclusions: The landscape-riverscape characteristics that maintain functional connectivity of L. longicaudis differed between the upper, middle, and lower basins. Our results have important implications for the conservation of the species, including the maintenance of larger suitable areas in Actopan and the necessity to improve connectivity in Jamapa, through the establishment of biological corridors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Coastal plants are terrestrial organisms for which ocean surface currents often act as long‐distance dispersal vectors (thalassochorous species) favouring broad distributions and connecting distant populations. However, few studies have statistically assessed the role of currents in modulating gene flow and species distributions of terrestrial organisms. Here we evaluate the hypothesis that some thalassochorous plants exhibit population connectivity, presumably due to effective seed dispersal driven by sea currents. Location: Galápagos Islands (Ecuador). Taxon: Salt bush (Cryptocarpus pyriformis Kunth), a Galápagos native and locally widespread coastal angiosperm. Methods: Using 1806 SNPs obtained by ddRADseq, we evaluated the genetic structure and differentiation of the Galápagos salt bush. To assess the role of sea currents in modulating inter‐population gene flow, four explicit hypotheses were tested using reciprocal causal modelling and spatial eigenvector analysis: (a) isolation by sea resistance, considering that only sea dispersal is possible; (b) isolation by sea and inland resistance, considering that inland dispersal is also possible; (c) isolation by barrier, considering the sea as an obstacle to seed dispersal; and (d) isolation by geographical distance. Results: Low differentiation and little genetic structure were detected among populations of C. pyriformis. Pairwise genetic distances between populations from different islands were significantly correlated with cost distances calculated from sea‐current direction and speed. Nonetheless, inland dispersal also accounted for some gene flow within each island. Main conclusion: Extensive and frequent seed dispersal by sea has apparently favoured strong inter‐island genetic connectivity within Galápagos. A combination of methods developed for terrestrial and marine domains (landscape and seascape genetics) aids in understanding how landscape features modulate gene flow of coastal plant species, as these terrestrial organisms are highly dependent on the sea for seed dispersal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Effective conservation policies rely on information about population genetic structure and the connectivity of remnants of suitable habitats. The interaction between natural and anthropogenic discontinuities across landscapes can uncover the relative contributions of different barriers to gene flow, with direct consequences for decision‐making in conservation. We aimed to quantify the relative roles of land cover and topographic variables on the population genetic differentiation and diversity of a stream‐breeding savanna tree frog (Bokermannohyla ibitiguara) across its range. Location: Serra da Canastra mountain range, Cerrado of Minas Gerais State, Brazil. Methods: We collected samples and extracted DNA samples from 12 populations within and outside a strictly protected park, and used 17 microsatellite markers to assess genetic structure, among‐population differentiation and within‐population diversity measures. We incorporated landscape data derived from digital models and satellite images to create connectivity matrices to correlate with genetic differentiation using Mantel tests. We used generalized linear models and path analyses to assess the roles of each landscape variable in shaping genetic diversity in this species. Results: Populations within and outside the park boundaries belonged to four genetic clusters. Most populations showed evidence of limited gene flow, with significant genetic differentiation, except for those within the park, which also had higher levels of allelic richness and heterozygosity. However, genetic differentiation among populations in this landscape was primarily explained by topographic complexity. Likewise, within‐population measures of genetic diversity were best explained by models including elevation and topographic complexity, and not the amount of natural habitat or gallery forests. Main conclusions: Our results underscore that topography may be a strong historical factor shaping genetic structure among amphibian populations. Therefore, effective conservation strategies for endangered amphibians should avoid focusing exclusively on habitat suitability, and incorporate topographic complexity, which seems to be a key factor for the fauna of the extremely threatened Brazilian savanna. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heterogenous landscape features of the Himalayan region shape the genetic structure of animal populations by delimiting spatial patterns of dispersal and reproduction. Integrating population genetic analysis with landscape features could yield results that shed light on the evolutionary diversity of the taxa therein. This study assessed the population genetic structure of the Nepal Himalayan langurs (Semnopithecus spp.) across almost their entire distribution range in the complex landscape of the Nepal Himalaya using the mitochondrial cytochrome b (CYTB, 1140 bp), cytochrome c oxidase I (COI, 676 bp), and control region (1088 bp) sequences. Sequences were successfully retrieved from 52 samples belonging to 17 troops of wild Himalayan langurs in Nepal. The concatenated alignment of the three loci (2904 bp) defined 35 unique haplotypes with haplotype and nucleotide diversities of 0.961 ± 0.017 and 0.0204 ± 0.004, respectively. The results of a median joining haplotype network and of inter-haplotypic phylogenetic analyses revealed five major clades across the country: one from the eastern, two from the central, and two from the western region of Nepal. No haplotypes were shared among the regions. The Mantel test results indicated that the landscape heterogeneity of the Himalaya has shaped the population genetic structure of the Himalayan langurs due to the combined effects of isolation by resistance and isolation by distance phenomena. The strong population genetic structure and deep mtDNA divergence warrants a detailed taxonomic assessment of the Himalayan langurs across their entire range.

Abstract Climate oscillations have left a significant impact on the patterns of genetic diversity observed in numerous taxa. In this study, we examine the effect of Quaternary climate instability on population genetic variability of a bumble bee pollinator species, Bombus huntii in western North America. Pleistocene and contemporary B. huntii habitat suitability (HS) was estimated with an environmental niche model (ENM) by associating 1,035 locality records with 10 bioclimatic variables. To estimate genetic variability, we genotyped 380 individuals from 33 localities at 13 microsatellite loci. Bayesian inference was used to examine population structure with and without a priori specification of geographic locality. We compared isolation by distance (IBD) and isolation by resistance (IBR) models to examine population differentiation within and among the Bayesian inferred genetic clusters. Furthermore, we tested for the effect of environmental niche stability (ENS) on population genetic diversity with linear regression. As predicted, high‐latitude B. huntii habitats exhibit low ENS when compared to low‐latitude habitats. Two major genetic clusters of B. huntii inhabit western North America: (a) a north genetic cluster predominantly distributed north of 28°N and (b) a south genetic cluster distributed south of 28°N. In the south genetic cluser, both IBD and IBR models are significant. However, in the north genetic cluster, IBD is significant but not IBR. Furthermore, the IBR models suggest that low‐latitude montane populations are surrounded by habitat with low HS, possibly limiting dispersal, and ultimately gene flow between populations. Finally, we detected high genetic diversity across populations in regions that have been climatically unstable since the last glacial maximum (LGM), and low genetic diversity across populations in regions that have been climatically stable since the LGM. Understanding how species have responded to climate change has the potential to inform management and conservation decisions of both ecological and economic concerns.

Aim: Population connectivity of benthic marine organisms depends strongly on planktonic larval dispersal and is controlled by geographic distance and oceanographic structure. We examine isolation by distance versus resistance to barriers (ocean current boundaries) against a background of post‐glacial habitat expansion in a small benthic fish of the Adriatic Sea. Location: Adriatic Sea, Eastern Mediterranean. Taxon: Tripterygion tripteronotum. Methods: We performed population genetic analyses using mitochondrial control region sequences of 550 individuals from 25 locations sampled along the Eastern Adriatic coast. Investigations of population structure included differentiation tests, cluster analyses and distance‐based redundancy analysis. We then ran Lagrangian simulations of passive larval drift to examine correlations among population structure, geographic distance and the Adriatic gyre system. To test for signatures of a post‐glacial range expansion, we modelled the demographic history of the populations and examined the geographic distribution of genetic diversity. Results: Genetic population structure corresponded to the Adriatic gyres without additional effect of geographic distance. Inference of northward‐biased gene flow between the northern and the Istrian gyre was consistent with simulated trajectories of passive drift, whereas the phylogeographic break coinciding with the boundary between the Central and the Northern Adriatic gyre was stronger than predicted by drift simulations. Genetic connectivity of populations within gyres was high. Genetic signatures of population expansion were consistent with a rapid post‐glacial recolonization of the northern Adriatic. Main conclusions: The combination of dense sampling and passive drift simulation allowed us to distinguish among effects of geographic distance, oceanographic features and palaeoenvironmental changes on current population structure. Comparisons between realized and potential connectivity illustrate the value of integrating different data sources to understand population structure and inform conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous work in landscape genetics suggests that geographic isolation is of greater importance to genetic divergence than variation in environmental conditions. This is intuitive when configurations of suitable habitat are a dominant factor limiting dispersal and gene flow, but has not been thoroughly examined for habitat specialists with strong dispersal capability. Here, we evaluate the effects of geographic and environmental isolation on genetic divergence for a vagile invertebrate with high habitat specificity and a discrete dispersal life stage: Dod's Old World swallowtail butterfly, Papilio machaon dodi. In Canada, P. m. dodi are generally restricted to eroding habitat along major river valleys where their larval host plant occurs. A series of causal and linear mixed effects models indicate that divergence of genome‐wide single nucleotide polymorphisms is best explained by a combination of environmental isolation (variation in summer temperatures) and geographic isolation (Euclidean distance). Interestingly, least‐cost path and circuit distances through a resistance surface parameterized as the inverse of habitat suitability were not supported. This suggests that, although habitat associations of many butterflies are specific due to reproductive requirements, habitat suitability and landscape permeability are not equivalent concepts due to considerable adult vagility. We infer that divergent selection related to variation in summer temperatures has produced two genetic clusters within P. m. dodi, differing in voltinism and diapause propensity. Within the next century, temperatures are predicted to rise by amounts greater than the present‐day difference between regions of the genetic clusters, potentially affecting the persistence of the northern cluster under continued climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: In human-dominated landscapes, habitat fragmentation and barriers to movement can interrupt gene flow. While often considered at a local extent, regional analyses are also needed to reveal broader landscape-mediated population processes. Objectives: To explore the relationship between patterns of gene flow and fragmentation resulting from urbanization across southern California, we used the bobcat as an indicator species. We assembled data for a landscape level genetic analysis across southern California from both archived and new samples, including two northern Californian populations for comparison, to identify local and regional areas affected by isolation. Methods: Our regional analyses focused on a dataset of 19 microsatellite loci for 118 individuals and a dataset of 422 individuals genotyped at 11 loci. We examined population genetic structure and examined how pairwise genetic distance of all population clusters aligned with geographic distance. We employed a landscape genetic analysis based on resistance to determine which features of the landscape likely play a role in determining the patterns of genetic structure we observed. Results: Study populations generally exhibited a pattern of isolation by distance and localized areas of genetic isolation. The landscape genetic analysis suggested that, in southern California, these patterns are driven by overall landscape permeability. Conclusions: Although local studies are key to examining the effects of urbanization and habitat fragmentation on populations, we demonstrate the importance of combining local and regional analyses for wide-ranging species to understand and maintain connectivity at local scales, while also improving and establishing sustainable linkages to habitats at the regional scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimating biologically meaningful geographic distances is essential for research in disciplines ranging from landscape genetics to community ecology. Topographically correcting distances to account for the total overland distance between locations imposed by topographic relief provides one method for calculating geographic distances that account for landscape structure.Here, I present topoDistance, an r package for calculating shortest topographic distances, weighted topographic paths and topographic least cost paths (LCPs). Topographic distances are calculated by weighting the edges of a graph by the hypotenuse of the horizontal and vertical distances between raster cells and then finding the shortest total path between cells of interest. The package also includes tools for mapping topographic paths and plotting elevation profiles.Examples from a species with moderate dispersal abilities, the western fence lizard, inhabiting a topographically complex landscape, Yosemite National Park (USA), demonstrate that topographic distances can vary significantly from straight‐line distances, and topographic LCPs can trace very different routes from LCPs and shortest topographic paths.Topographic paths and distances are broadly useful for modelling geographic isolation resulting from dispersal limitation for organisms that interact with the topographic structure of a landscape during movement and dispersal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of assessing spatial data at multiple scales when modelling species–environment relationships has been highlighted by several empirical studies. However, no landscape genetics studies have optimized landscape resistance surfaces by evaluating relevant spatial predictors at multiple spatial scales. Here, we model multiscale/layer landscape resistance surfaces to estimate resistance to inferred gene flow for two vernal pool breeding salamander species, spotted (Ambystoma maculatum) and marbled (A. opacum) salamanders. Multiscale resistance surface models outperformed spatial layers modelled at their original spatial scale. A resistance surface with forest land cover at a 500‐m Gaussian kernel bandwidth and normalized vegetation index at a 100‐m Gaussian kernel bandwidth was the top optimized resistance surface for A. maculatum, while a resistance surface with traffic rate and topographic curvature, both at a 500‐m Gaussian kernel bandwidth, was the top optimized resistance surface for A. opacum. Species‐specific resistant kernels were fit at all vernal pools in our study area with the optimized multiscale/layer resistance surface controlling kernel spread. Vernal pools were then evaluated and scored based on surrounding upland habitat (local score) and connectivity with other vernal pools on the landscape, with resistant kernels driving vernal pool connectivity scores. As expected, vernal pools that scored highest were in areas within forested habitats and with high vernal pool densities and low species‐specific landscape resistance. Our findings highlight the success of using a novel analytical approach in a multiscale framework with applications beyond vernal pool amphibian conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although habitat loss has large, consistently negative effects on biodiversity, its genetic consequences are not yet fully understood. This is because measuring the genetic consequences of habitat loss requires accounting for major methodological limitations like the confounding effect of habitat fragmentation, historical processes underpinning genetic differentiation, time-lags between the onset of disturbances and genetic outcomes, and the need for large numbers of samples, genetic markers, and replicated landscapes to ensure sufficient statistical power. In this paper we overcame all these challenges to assess the genetic consequences of extreme habitat loss driven by mining in two herbs endemic to Amazonian savannas. Relying on genotyping-by-sequencing of hundreds of individuals collected across two mining landscapes, we identified thousands of neutral and independent single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in each species and used these to evaluate population structure, genetic diversity, and gene flow. Since open-pit mining in our study region rarely involves habitat fragmentation, we were able to assess the independent effect of habitat loss. We also accounted for the underlying population structure when assessing landscape effects on genetic diversity and gene flow, examined the sensitivity of our analyses to the resolution of spatial data, and used annual species and cross-year analyses to minimize and quantify possible time-lag effects. We found that both species are remarkably resilient, as genetic diversity and gene flow patterns were unaffected by habitat loss. Whereas historical habitat amount was found to influence inbreeding; heterozygosity and inbreeding were not affected by habitat loss in either species, and gene flow was mainly influenced by geographic distance, pre-mining land cover, and local climate. Our study demonstrates that it is not possible to generalize about the genetic consequences of habitat loss, and implies that future conservation efforts need to consider species-specific genetic information.

The bulk of the world’s biodiversity is found in tropical regions, which are increasingly threatened by the human-led degradation of natural habitats. Yet, little is known about tropical biodiversity responses to habitat loss and fragmentation. Here we review all available literature assessing landscape effects on gene flow in tropical species, aiming to help unravel the factors underpinning functional connectivity in the tropics. We map and classify studies by focus species, the molecular markers employed, statistical approaches to assess landscape effects on gene flow, and the evaluated landscape and environmental variables. We then compare qualitatively and quantitatively landscape effects on gene flow across species and units of analysis. We found 69 articles assessing landscape effects on gene flow in tropical organisms, most of which were published in the last five years, were concentrated in the Americas, and focused on amphibians or mammals. Most studies employed population-level approaches, microsatellites were the preferred type of markers, and Mantel and partial Mantel tests the most common statistical approaches used. While elevation, land cover and forest cover were the most common gene flow predictors assessed, habitat suitability was found to be a common predictor of gene flow. A third of all surveyed studies explicitly assessed the effect of habitat degradation, but only 14 of these detected a reduced gene flow with increasing habitat loss. Elevation was responsible for most significant microsatellite-based isolation by resistance effects and a single study reported significant isolation by non-forested areas in an ant. Our study reveals important knowledge gaps on the study of landscape effects on gene flow in tropical organisms, and provides useful guidelines on how to fill them.

Although habitat loss has large, consistently negative effects on biodiversity, its genetic consequences are not yet fully understood. This is because measuring the genetic consequences of habitat loss requires accounting for major methodological limitations like the confounding effect of habitat fragmentation, historical processes underpinning genetic differentiation, time-lags between the onset of disturbances and genetic outcomes, and the need for large numbers of samples, genetic markers, and replicated landscapes to ensure sufficient statistical power. In this paper we overcame all these challenges to assess the genetic consequences of extreme habitat loss driven by mining in two herbs endemic to Amazonian savannas. Relying on genotyping-by-sequencing of hundreds of individuals collected across two mining landscapes, we identified thousands of neutral and independent single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in each species and used these to evaluate population structure, genetic diversity, and gene flow. Since open-pit mining in our study region rarely involves habitat fragmentation, we were able to assess the independent effect of habitat loss. We also accounted for the underlying population structure when assessing landscape effects on genetic diversity and gene flow, examined the sensitivity of our analyses to the resolution of spatial data, and used annual species and cross-year analyses to minimize and quantify possible time-lag effects. We found that both species are remarkably resilient, as genetic diversity and gene flow patterns were unaffected by habitat loss. Whereas historical habitat amount was found to influence inbreeding; heterozygosity and inbreeding were not affected by habitat loss in either species, and gene flow was mainly influenced by geographic distance, pre-mining land cover, and local climate. Our study demonstrates that it is not possible to generalize about the genetic consequences of habitat loss, and implies that future conservation efforts need to consider species-specific genetic information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Movement ecology and dispersal capabilities inherently drive genetic structure across landscapes. Through understanding dispersal and gene flow of giant kangaroo rats (Dipodomys ingens), conservation efforts can be focused, and we can further understand how genetic structure persists in this highly endemic small mammal. Here, we genetically identify parent–offspring and sibship relationships among 239 giant kangaroo rats using 15 microsatellites in the northern part of the species range and describe the individual genetic-spatial variation using a Moran eigenvector map (MEM). We further employ two landscape genetic analyses (isolation by resistance [IBR] and least cost paths [LCPs]) and two individual-based genetic metrics (Dps and a codominant marker distance from GenAlEx) to determine landscape factors (precipitation, slope, vegetation community, and roads) that influence gene flow. We found 19 pairs of related individuals, of which 18 were less than 250 m apart, but one sibling pair was 5.52 km apart, suggesting greater dispersal capabilities than previously noted. We found hierarchal spatial genetic structure using a MEM, with 3–4 genetically similar regions and two genetically similar subregions. Finally, we found low correlative strength between landscape features and gene flow. IBR consistently outperformed LCPs, and there was evidence that regions with 250–350 mm of precipitation and slope ≤ 5° promoted connectivity. We recommend that managers focus on habitat protection rather than corridor maintenance, with the caveat that anthropogenic factors were minimally considered in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amphibians are excellent model systems for studying how heterogeneous landscapes drive population differentiation. Though mountain ridges have been widely implicated as barriers to amphibian dispersal, a landscape genetic study by Zhan et al. (BMC Genet, 10, 2009, 17) indicated that the Tsinling Mountains of northwestern China did not significantly impede gene flow of the Chinese wood frog (Rana chensinensis). Using their published genetic data, we re‐assessed the impact of elevation, land cover, and roads on the Chinese wood frog using an isolation by resistance (IBR) approach, which allows for the modeling of complex and heterogeneous landscapes unavailable in classical population genetic analysis. We developed a novel method for optimization of IBR analysis using Circuitscape involving initial permutation‐based optimization of the correlation coefficient obtained through partial Mantel tests, followed by subsequent sensitivity analysis to improve upon the model's biological relevance. Our results indicated that mountain ridges indeed functioned as barriers to dispersal of Chinese wood frogs, and that previous conclusions were based on methodological limitations. Furthermore, a prominent threshold effect at elevations from 1500–2000 m was evident, with elevations below this range minimally impeding gene flow and higher elevations having a significant barrier effect. We suggest that a combination of expert opinion, sensitivity analysis, and permutation‐based optimization procedures in landscape genetic studies will likely generate models that are both highly explanatory and biologically relevant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The anthropogenic fragmentation of habitats has altered the distribution and size of populations of many species worldwide. To predict fate of populations and establish management practices that ensure their viability, we need to understand the demographic and genetic consequences of fragmentation. In this study, we analyzed whether the spatial configuration of remnant habitat patches within a fragmented landscape has shaped the patterns of genetic diversity and differences in local populations of the Montane brown frog (Rana ornativentris) in Tokyo, Japan. The species inhabits secondary forests and is particularly affected by fragmentation due to its habitat selectivity and low dispersal capability. We determined allele frequencies of six microsatellites to estimate genetic diversity of 33 local populations and pairwise genetic distances among them. Habitat suitability maps were developed based on two models, one with only climatic and topography as predictor variables (HSn), the second incorporating the potential barrier effect of urbanization as an additional variable (HSu). Ecological distances were calculated using the circuit theory applied to the habitat suitability maps. We found that within‐population genetic diversity decreases as the HSu habitat suitability decreases. Moreover, pairwise population genetic distance showed the highest correlations with resistance (i.e., ecological) distances when the HSu map was used. Our results confirmed the expectation that urbanized lands are barriers to gene flow, and that habitat fragmentation restricts inter‐population dispersal, thus reducing the genetic diversity of local populations. Our results also demonstrate that landscape genetics is a useful approach for identifying key factors affecting dispersal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat degradation and climate change are currently threatening wild pollinators, compromising their ability to provide pollination services to wild and cultivated plants. Landscape genomics offers powerful tools to assess the influence of landscape modifications on genetic diversity and functional connectivity, and to identify adaptations to local environmental conditions that could facilitate future bee survival. Here, we assessed range‐wide patterns of genetic structure, genetic diversity, gene flow, and local adaptation in the stingless bee Melipona subnitida, a tropical pollinator of key biological and economic importance inhabiting one of the driest and hottest regions of South America. Our results reveal four genetic clusters across the species' full distribution range. All populations were found to be under a mutation–drift equilibrium, and genetic diversity was not influenced by the amount of reminiscent natural habitats. However, genetic relatedness was spatially autocorrelated and isolation by landscape resistance explained range‐wide relatedness patterns better than isolation by geographic distance, contradicting earlier findings for stingless bees. Specifically, gene flow was enhanced by increased thermal stability, higher forest cover, lower elevations, and less corrugated terrains. Finally, we detected genomic signatures of adaptation to temperature, precipitation, and forest cover, spatially distributed in latitudinal and altitudinal patterns. Taken together, our findings shed important light on the life history of M. subnitida and highlight the role of regions with large thermal fluctuations, deforested areas, and mountain ranges as dispersal barriers. Conservation actions such as restricting long‐distance colony transportation, preserving local adaptations, and improving the connectivity between highlands and lowlands are likely to assure future pollination services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The amount of dispersal that occurs among populations can be limited by landscape heterogeneity, which is often due to both natural processes and anthropogenic activity leading to habitat loss or fragmentation. Understanding how populations are structured and mapping existing dispersal corridors among populations is imperative to both determining contemporary forces mediating population connectivity, and informing proper management of species with fragmented populations. Furthermore, the contemporary processes mediating gene flow across heterogeneous landscapes on a large scale are understudied, particularly with respect to widespread species. This study focuses on a widespread game bird, the Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus), for which we analyzed samples from the western extent of the range. Using three types of genetic markers, we uncovered multiple factors acting in concert that are responsible for mediating contemporary population connectivity in this species. Multiple genetically distinct groups were detected; microsatellite markers revealed six groups, and a mitochondrial marker revealed four. Many populations of Ruffed Grouse are genetically isolated, likely by macrogeographic barriers. Furthermore, the addition of landscape genetic methods not only corroborated genetic structure results, but also uncovered compelling evidence that dispersal resistance created by areas of unsuitable habitat is the most important factor mediating population connectivity among the sampled populations. This research has important implications for both our study species and other inhabitants of the early successional forest habitat preferred by Ruffed Grouse. Moreover, it adds to a growing body of evidence that isolation by resistance is more prevalent in shaping population structure of widespread species than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The bulk of the world's biodiversity is found in tropical regions, which are increasingly threatened by the human-led degradation of natural habitats. Yet, little is known about tropical biodiversity responses to habitat loss and fragmentation. Here we review all available literature assessing landscape effects on gene flow in tropical species, aiming to help unravel the factors underpinning functional connectivity in the tropics. We map and classify studies by focus species, the molecular markers employed, statistical approaches to assess landscape effects on gene flow, and the evaluated landscape and environmental variables. We then compare qualitatively and quantitatively landscape effects on gene flow across species and units of analysis. We found 69 articles assessing landscape effects on gene flow in tropical organisms, most of which were published in the last five years, were concentrated in the Americas, and focused on amphibians or mammals. Most studies employed population-level approaches, microsatellites were the preferred type of markers, and Mantel and partial Mantel tests the most common statistical approaches used. While elevation, land cover and forest cover were the most common gene flow predictors assessed, habitat suitability was found to be a common predictor of gene flow. A third of all surveyed studies explicitly assessed the effect of habitat degradation, but only 14 of these detected a reduced gene flow with increasing habitat loss. Elevation was responsible for most significant microsatellitebased isolation by resistance effects and a single study reported significant isolation by non-forested areas in an ant. Our study reveals important knowledge gaps on the study of landscape effects on gene flow in tropical organisms, and provides useful guidelines on how to fill them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Population genetics of Capreolus capreolus (roe deer) in Iran was investigated. • Environmental factors impeding the gene flow for roe deer were determined. • Geographical distance does not have a significant relationship with genetic distance of roe deer. • Roe deer dispersal is strongly linked to forest cover. Habitat destruction and fragmentation are major factors in the destruction of genetic diversity and affect the movement behavior of the Roe deer population in the remaining habitats. Here, we study the population and landscape genetics of Capreolus capreolus (roe deer) in northern and northwestern Iran using twelve polymorphism microsatellite markers. From 111 total specimens, 63 had successful extraction (6 feces, 35 tissues, 9 bones, and 13 antlers). We considered 30 microsatellite polymorphic loci, of which only 12 were amplified for our further analysis. For genetic diversity analysis, the Weir-Cockerham method was applied to measure the inbreeding coefficient (FIS) and fixation index (FST) for each locus as well as for each population. For landscape genetics, the susceptibility patterns of genetic variations were assessed using three hypotheses including isolation by distance (IBD), isolation by environment (IBE), isolation by resistance (IBR), and individual landscape genetic analysis. A habitat suitability map as an indicator of landscape resistance was constructed from several species distribution models (SDMs) algorithms including Generalized Boosting Models (GBM), Maximum Entropy (Maxent), Random Forest (RF), Generalized Linear Model (GLM), Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) and artificial neural networks (ANN) and an ensemble model. Our estimated FIs index showed that the Golestan, Arasbaran, and Guilan populations had the highest and lowest genetic diversity among roe deer populations. According to the Fst criterion, our results showed that Golestan and East Azarbaijan (Arasbaran) had the highest and Mazandaran had the lowest genetic distance patterns. Our results do not suggest that there is high genetic differentiation for roe deer in the region, with high levels of gene flow between study areas. We found that geographic distance has no significant relationship with genetic distance and that there is no significant relationship between the ecological niche non-similarity matrix and the genetic distance matrix. The most influential factors affecting gene flow in roe deer were aspect and elevation variables. The analysis suggests that the landscape has no significant influence on the structuring of the studied population and shows little genetic differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]