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The use of plants as medicine has been referred to since ancient peoples, perhaps as early as Neanderthal man. Plants are a source of many biologically active products and nowadays they are of great interest to the pharmaceutical industry. The study of how people of different culture use plants in particular ways has led to the discovery of important new medicines. In this work, we verify the possible activity of Musa paradisiaca L. (Musaceae) against the toxicity of snake venoms. Musa paradisiaca, an important source of food in the world, has also been reported to be popularly used as an anti-venom. Interaction of Musa paradisiaca extract (MsE) with snake venom proteins has been examined in this study. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2), myotoxic and hemorrhagic activities, including lethality in mice, induced by crotalidae venoms were significantly inhibited when different amounts of MsE were mixed with these venoms before assays. On the other hand, mice that received MsE and venoms without previous mixture or by separated routes were not protected against venom toxicity. Partial chemical characterization of MsE showed the presence of polyphenols and tannins and they are known to non-specifically inactivate proteins. We suggest that these compounds can be responsible for the in vitro inhibition of the toxic effects of snake venoms. In conclusion, according to our results, using mice as experimental model, MsE does not show protection against the toxic effects of snake venoms in vivo, but if was very effective when the experiments were done in vitro. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Antimicrobial peptides have been radiolabeled and investigated as molecular diagnostic probes due to their propensity to accumulate in infectious sites rather than aseptic inflammatory lesions. LyeTx I is a cationic peptide from the venom of Lycosa erythrognatha, exhibiting significant antimicrobial activity. LyeTx I mn∆K is a shortened derivative of LyeTx I, with an optimized balance between antimicrobial and hemolytic activities. This study reports the first 68 Ga-radiolabeling of the DOTA-modified LyeTx I mn∆K and primarily preclinical evaluations of [ 68 Ga]Ga-DOTA(K)-LyeTx I mn∆K as a PET radiopharmaceutical for infection imaging., Methods: DOTA(K)-LyeTx I mn∆K was radiolabeled with freshly eluted 68 Ga. Radiochemical yield (RCY), radiochemical purity (RCP), and radiochemical stability (in saline and serum) were evaluated using ascending thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The radiopeptide's lipophilicity was assessed by determining the logarithm of the partition coefficient (Log P). Serum protein binding (SBP) and binding to Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) cells were determined in vitro. Ex vivo biodistribution studies and PET/CT imaging were conducted in healthy mice (control) and mice with infection and aseptic inflammation to evaluate the potential of [ 68 Ga]Ga-DOTA(K)-LyeTx I mn∆K as a specific PET radiopharmaceutical for infections., Results: [ 68 Ga]Ga-DOTA(K)-LyeTx I mn∆K was obtained with a high RCY (>90 %), and after purification through a Sep-Pak C18 cartridge, the RCP exceeded 99 %. Ascending TLC and RP-HPLC showed that the radiopeptide remained stable for up to 3.0 h in saline solution and up to 1.5 h in murine serum. [ 68 Ga]Ga-DOTA(K)-LyeTx I mn∆K exhibited hydrophilic characteristics (Log P = -2.4 ± 0.1) and low SPB (ranging from 23.3 ± 0.4 % at 5 min of incubation to 10.5 ± 1.1 % at 60 min of incubation). The binding of [ 68 Ga]Ga-DOTA(K)-LyeTx I mn∆K to S. aureus cells was proportional to bacterial concentration, with binding percentages of 8.8 ± 0.5 % (0.5 × 10 9  CFU . mL -1 ), 16.2 ± 1.4 % (1.0 × 10 9  CFU . mL -1 ), and 62.2 ± 0.6 % (5.0 × 10 9  CFU . mL -1 ). Ex vivo biodistribution studies and PET/CT images showed higher radiopeptide uptake at the infection site compared to the aseptic inflammation site; the latter was similar to the control group. Target-to-non-target (T/NT) ratios obtained by ex vivo biodistribution data were approximately 1.0, 1.3, and 3.0 at all investigated time intervals for the control, aseptic inflammation, and infection groups, respectively. Furthermore, T/NT ratios obtained from PET/CT images were 1.1 ± 0.1 for the control group and 1.4 ± 0.1 for the aseptic inflammation group. For the infection group, T/NT ratio was 5.0 ± 0.3, approximately 5 times greater compared to the former groups., Conclusions: The results suggest the potential of [ 68 Ga]Ga-DOTA(K)-LyeTx I mn∆K as a PET radiopharmaceutical for molecular imaging of infections., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The urgent global health challenge posed by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections demands effective solutions. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent promising tools of research of new antibacterial agents and LyeTx I mn∆K, a short synthetic peptide based on the Lycosa erythrognatha spider venom, is a good representative. This study focused on analyzing the antimicrobial activities of LyeTx I mn∆K, including minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations, synergy and resensitization assays, lysis activity, the effect on biofilm, and the bacterial death curve in MRSA. Additionally, its characterization was conducted through isothermal titration calorimetry, dynamic light scattering, calcein release, and finally, efficacy in a mice wound model. The peptide demonstrates remarkable efficacy against planktonic cells (MIC 8-16 µM) and biofilms (>30% of inhibition) of MRSA, and outperforms vancomycin in terms of rapid bactericidal action and anti-biofilm effects. The mechanism involves significant membrane damage. Interactions with bacterial model membranes, including those with lysylphosphatidylglycerol (LysylPOPG) modifications, highlight the versatility and selectivity of this compound. Also, the peptide has the ability to sensitize resistant bacteria to conventional antibiotics, showing potential for combinatory therapy. Furthermore, using an in vivo model, this study showed that a formulated gel containing the peptide proved superior to vancomycin in treating MRSA-induced wounds in mice. Together, the results highlight LyeTx I mnΔK as a promising prototype for the development of effective therapeutic strategies against superficial MRSA infections.

Diabetic neuropathic pain is one of the complications that affect a wide variety of the diabetic population and is often difficult to treat. Only a small number of patients experience pain relief, which usually comes with onerous side effects and low levels of satisfaction. The search for new analgesic drugs is necessary, given the limitations that current drugs present. Combining drugs to treat neuropathic pain has been attracting interest to improve their efficacy compared to single-drug monotherapies while also reducing dose sizes to minimize side effects. The aim of our study was to verify the antinociceptive effect of a synthetic peptide, PnPP-15, alone and combined with pregabalin, in male Swiss diabetic mice using the von Frey method. PnPP-15 is a synthetic peptide derived from PnPP19, a peptide representing a discontinuous epitope of the primary structure of the toxin PnTx2-6 from the venom of the spider Phoneutria nigriventer . The antinociceptive activity of both compounds was dose-dependent and showed synergism, which was verified by isobolographic analysis. Treatment with PnPP-15 did not cause spontaneous or forced motor changes and did not cause any damage or signs of toxicity in the analyzed organs (pancreas, lung, heart, kidney, brain, or liver). In conclusion, PnPP-15 is a great candidate for an analgesic drug against neuropathic pain caused by diabetes and exerts a synergistic effect when combined with pregabalin, allowing for even more efficient treatment., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Structural modifications are an important tool for studying the properties of naturally occurring polyphenols. Regarding the preparation of acetyl esters, the presence of hydroxyl groups stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonds may pose an obstacle for the peracetylation of these compounds. In this paper, we present a facile protocol for the acetylation of selected polyphenols under mild reaction conditions by using acetic anhydride, catalytic amount 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) and dimethylformamide (DMF) as solvent. Reaction conditions were adjusted for optimal formation of peracetylated polyphenols while minimizing the formation of byproducts. Butyric anhydride was employed as an alternative acylating agent and showed similar results. Reaction yields varied from 78-97%, and products were obtained in high purity, as determined by LCMS(ESI+), 1 H NMR and 13 C NMR.

Infections caused by multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (MDR-Ab) have become a public health emergency. Due to the small therapeutic arsenal available to treat these infections, health agencies have highlighted the importance of developing new antimicrobials against MDR-Ab. In this context, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) stand out, and animal venoms are a rich source of these compounds. Here, we aimed to summarize the current knowledge on the use of animal venom-derived AMPs in the treatment of MDR-Ab infections in vivo. A systematic review was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The eight studies included in this review identified the antibacterial activity of eleven different AMPs against MDR-Ab. Most of the studied AMPs originated from arthropod venoms. In addition, all AMPs are positively charged and rich in lysine residues. In vivo assays showed that the use of these compounds reduces MDR-Ab-induced lethality and bacterial load in invasive (bacteremia and pneumonia) and superficial (wounds) infection models. Moreover, animal venom-derived AMPs have pleiotropic effects, such as pro-healing, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities, that help treat infections. Animal venom-derived AMPs are a potential source of prototype molecules for the development of new therapeutic agents against MDR-Ab.

The increase in the incidence of fungal infections associated with the limited therapeutic arsenal available and the increasing rate of resistance of pathogenic fungi reinforce the need for research of new antifungal agents. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the antifungal activity of the peptide LyeTx I mnΔK, a shortened analogue of the natural peptide LyeTx I derived from spider venom, against Candida species. LyeTx I mnΔK showed potent activity against Candida spp. with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicide concentration (MFC) between 4 and 32 µM. The peptide also completely inhibited the yeast-to-hypha transition (at 2 µM) and broke mature biofilms (67% reduction at 32 µM) of C. albicans . In addition, LyeTx I mnΔK did not induce resistance in C. albicans during 21 days of exposure. Therefore, the LyeTx I mnΔK is a promising prototype for the development of new antifungal agents.

The existence of a formal Endocannabinoid System in C. elegans has been questioned due to data showing the absence of typical cannabinoid receptors in the worm; however, the presence of a full metabolism for endocannabinoids, alternative ligands, and receptors for these agents and a considerable number of orthologous and homologous genes regulating physiological cannabinoid-like signals and responses - several of which are similar to those of mammals - demonstrates a well-structured and functional complex system in nematodes. In this review, we describe and compare similarities and differences between the Endocannabinoid System in mammals and nematodes, highlighting the basis for the integral study of this novel system in the worm., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.)

Cancer and parasitic diseases, such as leishmaniasis and Chagas disease, share similarities that allow the co-development of new antiproliferative agents as a strategy to quickly track the discovery of new drugs. This strategy is especially interesting regarding tropical neglected diseases, for which chemotherapeutic alternatives are extremely outdated. We designed a series of ( E )-3-aryl-5-(2-aryl-vinyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazoles based on the reported antiparasitic and anticancer activities of structurally related compounds. The synthesis of such compounds led to the development of a new, fast, and efficient strategy for the construction of a 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring on a silica-supported system under microwave irradiation. One hit compound ( 23 ) was identified during the in vitro evaluation against drug-sensitive and drug-resistant chronic myeloid leukemia cell lines (EC 50 values ranging from 5.5 to 13.2 µM), Trypanosoma cruzi amastigotes (EC 50 = 2.9 µM) and Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes (EC 50 = 12.2 µM) and amastigotes (EC 50 = 13.5 µM). In silico studies indicate a correlation between the in vitro activity and the interaction with tubulin at the colchicine binding site. Furthermore, ADMET in silico predictions indicate that the compounds possess a high druggability potential due to their physicochemical, pharmacokinetic, and toxicity profiles, and for hit 23, it was identified by multiple spectroscopic approaches that this compound binds with human serum albumin (HSA) via a spontaneous ground-state association with a moderate affinity driven by entropically and enthalpically energies into subdomain IIA (site I) without significantly perturbing the secondary content of the protein.

Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses), such as Zika virus (ZIKV), chikungunya virus (CHIKV), dengue virus (DENV), yellow fever virus (YFV), and West Nile virus (WNV), are pathogens of global importance. Therefore, there has been an increasing need for new drugs for the treatment of these viral infections. In this context, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) obtained from animal venoms stand out as promising compounds because they exhibit strong antiviral activity against emerging arboviral pathogens. Thus, we systematically searched and critically analyzed in vitro and in vivo studies that evaluated the anti-arbovirus effect of peptide derivatives from toxins produced by vertebrates and invertebrates. Thirteen studies that evaluated the antiviral action of 10 peptides against arboviruses were included in this review. The peptides were derived from the venom of scorpions, spiders, wasps, snakes, sea snails, and frogs and were tested against DENV, ZIKV, YFV, WNV, and CHIKV. Despite the high structural variety of the peptides included in this study, their antiviral activity appears to be associated with the presence of positive charges, an excess of basic amino acids (mainly lysine), and a high isoelectric point (above 8). These peptides use different antiviral mechanisms, the most common of which is the inhibition of viral replication, release, entry, or fusion. Moreover, peptides with virucidal and cytoprotective (pre-treatment) effects were also identified. In conclusion, animal-venom-derived peptides stand out as a promising alternative in the search and development of prototype antivirals against arboviruses., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Austria, part of Springer Nature.)

For the first time, compounds developed from the 1,2,3-triazole scaffold were evaluated as novel drugs to treat triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Four organic salts were idealized as nonclassical bioisosteres of miltefosine, which is used in the topical treatment for skin metastasizing breast carcinoma. Among them, derivative dhmtAc displayed better solubility and higher cytotoxicity against the human breast adenocarcinoma cell line and mouse 4T1 cell lines, which are representatives of TNBC. In vitro assays revealed that dhmtAc interferes with cell integrity, confirmed by lactate dehydogenase leakage. Due to its human peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) toxicity, dhmtAc in vivo studies were carried out with the drug incorporated in a long-circulating and pH-sensitive liposome (SpHL-dhmtAc), and the acute toxicity in BALB/c mice was determined. Free dhmtAc displayed cardiac and pulmonary toxicity after the systemic administration of 5 mg/kg doses. On the other hand, SpHL-dhmtAc displayed no toxicity at 20 mg/kg. The in vivo antitumor effect of SpHL-dhmtAc was investigated using the 4T1 heterotopic murine model. Intravenous administration of SpHL-dhmtAc reduced the tumor volume and weight, without interfering with the body weight, compared with the control group and the dhmtAc free form. The incorporation of the triazole compound in the liposome allowed the demonstration of its anticancer potential. These findings evidenced 1,3,4-trisubstituted-1,2,3-triazole as a promising scaffold for the development of novel drugs with applicability for the treatment of patients with TNBC., (© 2022 Deutsche Pharmazeutische Gesellschaft.)

Fungal infections are the most common secondary infections in debilitated individuals in a state of chronic disease or immunosuppression. Despite this, most fungal infections are neglected, mainly due to the lower frequency of their more severe clinical forms in immunocompetent individuals with a healthy background. However, over the past few years, several cases of severe fungal infections in healthy individuals have provoked a change in the epidemiological dynamics of fungal infections around the world, both due to recurrent outbreaks in previously infrequent regions and the greater emergence of more pathogenic fungal variants affecting healthy individuals, such as in the Cryptococcus genus. Therefore, before the arrival of a scenario of prevalent severe fungal infections, it is necessary to assess more carefully what are the real reasons for the increased incidence of fungal infection globally. What are the factors that are currently contributing to this new possible epidemiological dynamic? Could these be of a structural nature? Herein, we propose a discussion based on the importance of the virulence factors of glycoconjugate composition in the adaptation of pathogenic fungal species into the current scenario of increasing severity of these infections.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer that affects women globally and is among the leading cause of women's death. Triple-negative breast cancer is more difficult to treat because hormone therapy is not available for this subset of cancer. The well-established therapy against triple-negative breast cancer is mainly based on surgery, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. Among the drugs used in the therapy are cisplatin and carboplatin. However, they cause severe toxicity to the kidneys and brain and cause nausea. Therefore, it is urgent to propose new chemotherapy techniques that provide new treatment options to patients affected by this disease. Nowadays, peptide drugs are emerging as a class of promising new anticancer agents due to their lytic nature and, apparently, a minor drug resistance compared to other conventional drugs (reviewed in Jafari et al., 2022). We have recently reported the cytotoxic effect of the antimicrobial peptide LyeTx I-b against glioblastoma cells (Abdel-Salam et al., 2019). In this research, we demonstrated the cytotoxic effect of the peptide LyeTx I-b, alone and combined with cisplatin, against triple-negative cell lines (MDA-MD-231). LyeTx-I-b showed a selectivity index 70-fold higher than cisplatin. The peptide:cisplatin combination (P:C) 1:1 presented a synergistic effect on the cell death and a selective index value 16 times greater than the cisplatin alone treatment. Therefore, an equi-effective reduction of cisplatin can be reached in the presence of LyeTx I-b. Cells treated with P:C combinations were arrested in the G2/M cell cycle phase and showed positive staining for acridine orange, which was inhibited by bafilomycin A1, indicating autophagic cell death (ACD) as a probable cell death mechanism. Furthermore, Western blot experiments indicated a decrease in P21 expression and AKT phosphorylation. The decrease in AKT phosphorylation is indicative of ACD. However, other studies are still necessary to better elucidate the pathways involved in the cell death mechanism induced by the peptide and the drug combinations. These findings confirmed that the peptide LyeTx I-b seems to be a good candidate for combined chemotherapy to treat breast cancer. In addition, in vivo studies are essential to validate the use of LyeTx I-b as a therapeutic drug candidate, alone and/or combined with cisplatin., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Avelar Júnior, Lima-Batista, Castro Junior, Pimenta, Dos Santos, Souza-Fagundes and De Lima.)

The venom of the "armed" spider Phoneutria nigriventer comprises several potent toxins. One of the most toxic components from this venom is the neurotoxin PnTx2-6 (LD 50 = ∼ 0.7 μg/mouse, 48 residues, five disulfide bridges, MW = 5,289.31 Da), which slows down the inactivation of various Na + channels. In mice and rats, this toxin causes priapism, an involuntary and painful erection, similar to what is observed in humans bitten by P. nigriventer . While not completely elucidated, it is clear that PnTx2-6 potentiates erectile function via NO/cGMP signaling, but it has many off-target effects. Seeking to obtain a simpler and less toxic molecule able to retain the pharmacological properties of this toxin, we designed and synthesized the peptide PnPP-19 (19 residues, MW = 2,485.6 Da), representing a discontinuous epitope of PnTx2-6. This synthetic peptide also potentiates erectile function via NO/cGMP, but it does not target Na + channels, and therefore, it displays nontoxic properties in animals even at high doses. PnPP-19 effectively potentiates erectile function not only after subcutaneous or intravenous administration but also following topical application. Surprisingly, PnPP-19 showed central and peripheral antinociceptive activity involving the opioid and cannabinoid systems, suggesting applicability in nociception. Furthermore, considering that PnPP-19 increases NO availability in the corpus cavernosum, this peptide was also tested in a model of induced intraocular hypertension, characterized by low NO levels, and it showed promising results by decreasing the intraocular pressure which prevents retinal damage. Herein, we discuss how was engineered this smaller active non-toxic peptide with promising results in the treatment of erectile dysfunction, nociception, and glaucoma from the noxious PnTx2-6, as well as the pitfalls of this ongoing journey., Competing Interests: The authors CS, KN, LD, ACJ, and ML have shares in BIOZEUS Inc., Brazil. Patents covering the use of the peptide PnPP-19 and its pharmaceutical compositions and use for treating ED (BR1020130205745; PCT/BR 2013/000319; US10905738B2), nociception (BR1020140102680), and glaucoma (WO/2021/042193; PCT/BR2020/050349) were issued. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Silva, Nunes, Dourado, Vieira, Mariano, Cunha Junior and de Lima.)

Chagas disease is a neglected illness caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and its treatment is done only with two drugs, nifurtimox and benznidazole. However, both drugs are ineffective in the chronic phase, in addition to causing serious side effects. This context of therapeutic limitation justifies the continuous research for alternative drugs. Here, we study the in vitro trypanocidal effects of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug nimesulide, a molecule that has in its chemical structure a toxicophoric nitroaromatic group (NO2). The set of results obtained in this work highlights the potential for repurposing nimesulide in the treatment of this disease that affects millions of people around the world., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The pathology associated with COVID-19 infection is progressively being revealed. Recent postmortem assessments have revealed acute airway inflammation as well as diffuse alveolar damage, which bears resemblance to severe acute respiratory syndromes induced by both SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV infections. Although recent papers have highlighted some neuropathologies associated with COVID-19 infection, little is known about this topic of great importance in the area of public health. Here, we discuss how neuroinflammation related to COVID-19 could be triggered by direct viral neuroinvasion and/or cytokine release over the course of the infection.

Cationic anticancer peptides have exhibited potent anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory effects in neoplastic illness conditions. LyeTx I-b is a synthetic peptide derived from Lycosa erythrognatha spider venom that previously showed antibiotic activity in vitro and in vivo. This study focused on the effects of LyeTxI-b on a 4T1 mouse mammary carcinoma model. Mice with a palpable tumor in the left flank were subcutaneously or intratumorally injected with LyeTx I-b (5 mg/kg), which significantly decreased the tumor volume and metastatic nodules. Histological analyses showed a large necrotic area in treated primary tumors compared to the control. LyeTxI-b reduced tumor growth and lung metastasis in the 4T1 mouse mammary carcinoma model with no signs of toxicity in healthy or cancerous mice. The mechanism of action of LyeTx I-b on the 4T1 mouse mammary carcinoma model was evaluated in vitro and is associated with induction of apoptosis and cell proliferation inhibition. Furthermore, LyeTx I-b seems to be an efficient regulator of the 4T1 tumor microenvironment by modulating several cytokines, such as TGF-β, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10, in primary tumor and lung, spleen, and brain. LyeTx I-b also plays a role in leukocytes rolling and adhesion into spinal cord microcirculation and in the number of circulating leukocytes. These data suggest a potent antineoplastic efficacy ofLyeTx I-b.

PnPP-19 peptide has a primary sequence design based on molecular modeling studies of PnTx2-6 toxin. It comprises the amino acid residues that are potentially significant for the pharmacological action of PnTx2-6. Ex vivo and in vivo experiments in normotensive, hypertensive, or diabetic murine models have shown a significant improvement in penile erection after administration of PnPP-19. Given the potential use of PnPP-19 in pharmaceutical formulations to treat erectile dysfunction and the lack of information concerning its mode of action, the present work investigates its activities on the nitrergic system. PnPP-19 induced a significant increase in nitric oxide (NO) and cGMP levels in corpus cavernosum (cc). These effects were inhibited by l-NAME, a non-selective inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (NOS); were partially inhibited by 7- Nitroindazole, a selective inhibitor of neuronal NOS (nNOS); and were abolished by L-NIL, a selective inhibitor of inducible NOS (iNOS). This potentiating effect was not affected by atropine. PnPP-19 also led to changes in mRNA levels, protein expression and phosphorylation at specific sites of NOS, in cc. Assays using cavernous tissue from knockout mice to endothelial NOS (eNOS), nNOS or iNOS showed that PnPP-19 potentiates relaxation only in eNOS-knockout mice, which suggests an essential role for nNOS. Surprisingly, iNOS enhanced the potentiation of erectile function evoked by PnPP-19. Our results demonstrate that this new synthetic peptide potentiates erectile function via nitric oxide activation and reinforce its role as a new pharmacological tool for the treatment of erectile dysfunction., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii , is a major public concern owing to its neurotropic nature and high morbidity and mortality rates in immunocompromised patients and newborns. Current treatment for this disease is inefficient and produces side effects. Inflammatory mediators produced during T. gondii infection (e.g., cytokines and nitric oxide) are crucial in controlling parasite replication. In this context, Tityus serrulatus venom (TsV) induces the production of inflammatory mediators by immune cells. Thus, this study aimed to isolate and identify the components of TsV with potential anti- T. gondii activity. TsV was extracted from scorpions and lyophilized or loaded onto a column to obtain its fractions. TsV subfractions were obtained using chromatography, and its amino acid sequence was identified and applied to peptide design using bioinformatics tools. The C57BL/6 mice and their harvested macrophages were used to test the anti- Toxoplasma activity of TsV components and peptides. TsV and its fraction F6 attenuated the replication of tachyzoites in macrophages and induced nitric oxide and cytokine (IL-12, TNF, and IL-6) production by infected cells, without host cell toxicity. Moreover, Su6-B toxin, a subfraction of F6, demonstrated anti- T. gondii activity. The partially elucidated and characterized amino acid sequence of Sub6-B demonstrated 93% similarity with T. serrulatus 2 toxin (Ts2). Ts2 mimetic peptides ("Pep1," "Pep2a," and "Pep2b") were designed and synthesized. Pep1 and Pep2a, but not Pep2b, reduced the replication of tachyzoites in macrophages. In vivo , treatment of T. gondii -infected mice with Pep1, Pep2a, or Pep2b decreased the number of cerebral cysts and did not induce hepatotoxicity in the animals. Taken together, our data show promising immunomodulatory and antiparasitic activity of TsV that could be explored and applied in future therapies for treating infectious parasitic diseases such as toxoplasmosis., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 de Assis, Pimentel, dos Reis, Rabelo, Vitor, Cordeiro, Felicori, Olórtegui, Resende, Teixeira, Borges, de Lima, Pimenta and Machado.)

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, especially carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB), together with relative stagnation in the development of effective antibiotics, has led to enormous health and economic problems. In this study, we aimed to describe the antibacterial spectrum of LyeTx I mnΔK, a short synthetic peptide based on LyeTx I from Lycosa erythrognatha venom, against CRAB. LyeTx I mnΔK showed considerable antibacterial activity against extensively resistant A. baumannii, with minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations ranging from 1 to 16 µM and 2 to 32 µM, respectively. This peptide significantly increased the release of 260 nm-absorbing intracellular material from CRAB, suggesting bacteriolysis. LyeTx I mnΔK was shown to act synergistically with meropenem and colistin against CRAB. The cytotoxic concentration of LyeTx I mnΔK against Vero cells (CC 50  = 55.31 ± 5.00 µM) and its hemolytic activity (HC 50  = 77.07 ± 4.00 µM) were considerably low; however, its antibacterial activity was significantly reduced in the presence of human and animal serum and trypsin. Nevertheless, the inhalation of this peptide was effective in reducing pulmonary bacterial load in a mouse model of CRAB infection. Altogether, these results demonstrate that the peptide LyeTx I mnΔK is a potential prototype for the development of new effective and safe antibacterial agents against CRAB.

Superbugs are a public health problem, increasing the need of new drugs and strategies to combat them. Our group has previously identified LyeTxI, an antimicrobial peptide isolated from Lycosa erythrognatha spider venom. From LyeTxI, we synthesized and characterized a derived peptide named LyeTxI-b, which has shown significant in vitro and in vivo activity. In this work, we elucidate the interaction of LyeTxI-b with artificial membranes as well as its effects on resistant strains of bacteria in planktonic conditions or biofilms. Isothermal titration calorimetry revealed that LyeTxI-b interacts more rapidly and with higher intensity with artificial vesicles, showing higher affinity to anionic vesicles, when compared to synthetic LyeTxI. In calcein experiments, LyeTxI-b caused greater levels of vesicle cleavage. Both peptides showed antibacterial activity at concentrations of μmol L -1 against 12 different clinically isolated strains, in planktonic conditions, in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, both peptides elicited a dose-dependent production of reactive oxygen species in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . In S. aureus biofilm assay, LyeTxI-b was more potent than LyeTxI. However, none of these peptides reduced Escherichia coli biofilms. Our results show LyeTxI-b as a promising drug against clinically resistant strains, being a template for developing new antibiotics., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Reis, Lima, Souza, Cardoso, Melo-Braga, Santos, Verly, Pimenta, Santos and de Lima.)

Current chemical therapies for Chagas Disease (CD) lack ability to clear Trypanosoma cruzi (Tc) parasites and cause severe side effects, making search for new strategies extremely necessary. We evaluated the action of Tityus serrulatus venom (TsV) components during Tc infection. TsV treatment increased nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokine production by Tc-infected macrophages (MØ), decreased intracellular parasite replication and trypomastigotes release, also triggering ERK1/2, JNK1/2 and p38 activation. Ts7 demonstrated the highest anti-Tc activity, inducing high levels of TNF and IL-6 in infected MØ. TsV/Ts7 presented synergistic effect on p38 activation when incubated with Tc antigen. KPP-treatment of MØ also decreased trypomastigotes releasing, partially due to p38 activation. TsV/Ts7-pre-incubation of Tc demonstrated a direct effect on parasite decreasing MØ-trypomastigotes releasing. In vivo KPP-treatment of Tc-infected mice resulted in decreased parasitemia. Summarizing, this study opens perspectives for new bioactive molecules as CD-therapeutic treatment, demonstrating the TsV/Ts7/KPP-trypanocidal and immunomodulatory activity during Tc infection., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Ureases are microbial virulence factors either because of the enzymatic release of ammonia or due to many other non-enzymatic effects. Here we studied two neurotoxic urease isoforms, Canatoxin (CNTX) and Jack Bean Urease (JBU), produced by the plant Canavalia ensiformis, whose mechanisms of action remain elusive. The neurotoxins provoke convulsions in rodents (LD 50 ∼2 mg/kg) and stimulate exocytosis in cell models, affecting intracellular calcium levels. Here, electrophysiological and brain imaging techniques were applied to elucidate their mode of action. While systemic administration of the toxins causes tonic-clonic seizures in rodents, JBU injected into rat hippocampus induced spike-wave discharges similar to absence-like seizures. JBU reduced the amplitude of compound action potential from mouse sciatic nerve in a tetrodotoxin-insensitive manner. Hippocampal slices from CNTX-injected animals or slices treated in vitro with JBU failed to induce long term potentiation upon tetanic stimulation. Rat cortical synaptosomes treated with JBU released L-glutamate. JBU increased the intracellular calcium levels and spontaneous firing rate in rat hippocampus neurons. MicroPET scans of CNTX-injected rats revealed increased [18] Fluoro-deoxyglucose uptake in epileptogenesis-related areas like hippocampus and thalamus. Curiously, CNTX did not affect voltage-gated sodium, calcium or potassium channels currents, neither did it interfere on cholinergic receptors, suggesting an indirect mode of action that could be related to the ureases' membrane-disturbing properties. Understanding the neurotoxic mode of action of C. ensiformis ureases could help to unveil the so far underappreciated relevance of these toxins in diseases caused by urease-producing microorganisms, in which the human central nervous system is affected., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In the continuing search for novel antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides are promising molecules, due to different mechanisms of action compared to classic antibiotics and to their selectivity for interaction with microorganism cells rather than with mammalian cells. Previously, our research group has isolated the antimicrobial peptide LyeTx I from the venom of the spider Lycosa erythrognatha . Here, we proposed to synthesize three novel shortened derivatives from LyeTx I (LyeTx I mn; LyeTx I mnΔK; LyeTx I mnΔKAc) and to evaluate their toxicity and biological activity as potential antimicrobial agents. Peptides were synthetized by Fmoc strategy and circular dichroism analysis was performed, showing that the three novel shortened derivatives may present membranolytic activity, like the original LyeTx I, once they folded as an alpha helix in 2.2.2-trifluorethanol and sodium dodecyl sulfate. In vitro assays revealed that the shortened derivative LyeTx I mnΔK presents the best score between antimicrobial (↓ MIC) and hemolytic (↑ EC 50 ) activities among the synthetized shortened derivatives, and LUHMES cell-based NeuriTox test showed that it is less neurotoxic than the original LyeTx I (EC 50 [LyeTx I mnΔK] ⋙ EC 50 [LyeTx I]). In vivo data, obtained in a mouse model of septic arthritis induced by Staphylococcus aureus , showed that LyeTx I mnΔK is able to reduce infection, as demonstrated by bacterial recovery assay (∼10-fold reduction) and scintigraphic imaging (less technetium-99m labeled-Ceftizoxime uptake by infectious site). Infection reduction led to inflammatory process and pain decreases, as shown by immune cells recruitment reduction and threshold nociception increment, when compared to positive control group. Therefore, among the three shortened peptide derivatives, LyeTx I mnΔK is the best candidate as antimicrobial agent, due to its smaller amino acid sequence and toxicity, and its greater biological activity.

Acute chagasic encephalitis is a clinically severe central nervous system (CNS) manifestation. However, the knowledge of the nervous form of Chagas disease is incomplete. The role of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) on mice behavior and brain lesions induced by Trypanosoma cruzi (Colombian strain) was herein investigated in mice treated with the mAChR agonist and antagonist (carbachol and atropine), respectively. Immunosuppressed or non-immunosuppressed mice were intracerebroventricularly (icv) or intraperitoneally (ip) infected. All groups were evaluated 15 d.p.i. (days post infection). Intraperitoneally infected animals had subpatent parasitemia. Patent parasitemia occurred only in icv infected mice. The blockade of mAChR increased the parasitemia, parasitism and lesions compared to its activation. Infected not treated (INT ip) mice did not present meningitis and encephalitis, regardless of immunosuppression. INT icv brains presented higher cellularity, discrete signs of cellular degeneration, frequent presence of parasites and focal meningitis. The immunosuppressed atropine + icv mice presented increased intracellular parasitism associated with degenerative parenchymal changes, while carbachol + icv mice presented discrete meningitis, preservation of the cortex and absence of relevant parasitism. Cholinergic receptor blockage increased impairment of coordination vs. receptor activation. Muscarinic cholinergic pathway seems to be involved in immune mediated cell invasion events while its blockade favored infection evolution, brain lesions, and behavioral alterations.

Voltage-gated sodium (Na V ) channels play crucial roles in a range of (patho)physiological processes. Much interest has arisen within the pharmaceutical industry to pursue these channels as analgesic targets following overwhelming evidence that Na V channel subtypes Na V 1.7-Na V 1.9 are involved in nociception. More recently, Na V 1.1, Na V 1.3 and Na V 1.6 have also been identified to be involved in pain pathways. Venom-derived disulfide-rich peptide toxins, isolated from spiders and cone snails, have been used extensively as probes to investigate these channels and have attracted much interest as drug leads. However, few peptide-based leads have made it as drugs due to unfavourable physiochemical attributes including poor in vivo pharmacokinetics and limited oral bioavailability. The present work aims to bridge the gap in the development pipeline between drug leads and drug candidates by downsizing these larger venom-derived Na V inhibitors into smaller, more "drug-like" molecules. Here, we use molecular engineering of small cyclic peptides to aid in the determination of what drives subtype selectivity and molecular interactions of these downsized inhibitors across Na V subtypes. We designed a series of small, stable and novel Na V probes displaying Na V subtype selectivity and potency in vitro coupled with potent in vivo analgesic activity, involving yet to be elucidated analgesic pathways in addition to Na V subtype modulation., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: PnPa11 and PnPa13 are synthetic peptides derived from Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom, which display antinociceptive and neuroprotective properties. In this work, we evaluated the safety of intravitreal use and the neuroprotective effect of these peptides., Methods: The cytotoxicity and the antiangiogenic activity of these peptides were evaluated by the sulforhodamine-B method and chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay, respectively. The in vivo safety was analyzed in Wistar rats that were intravitreally injected with different doses (0.50; 1.25; 2.50; 3.75 and 5.00 µg/mL) of these peptides (right eye, n = 6). The retinal function was assessed by electroretinography exams (ERG), intraocular pressure (IOP), and histological analyzes. In order to investigate the neuroprotective effect, Wistar rats received intravitreal injections (right eye, n = 6) of peptides at 1.25 µg/mL and then were exposed to blue LED light. In addition, the visual function and the retinal microstructure were verified., Results: Cytotoxicity analyses demonstrated that the peptides did not present any toxicity over ARPE-19 (adult retinal pigmented epithelial) cell line and the antiangiogenic study highlighted that the peptides promoted the reduction of blood vessels. The intravitreal injection did not cause major changes, neither induced any irreversible damage. In the retinal degeneration assay, the ERG records demonstrated that the prior treatment with PnPa11 and PnPa13 protected the retina from damage. Morphological analyses confirmed the ERG findings. Immunoblotting analyses revealed that PnPa11 increased Erk1/2, NR2A, and NR2B retinal expression after the light stress model, but did not cause Akt1 activation, while PnPa13 prevented Erk1/2 and Akt1 dephosphorylation., Conclusions: The intraocular administration of these peptides was well tolerated and presented protective activity against retinal degeneration, suggesting the potential use of these peptides as neuroprotectors in the ophthalmological field., Competing Interests: Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the rate of polymyxin resistance among Acinetobacter baumannii isolates causing infection in hospitalized patients around the world during the period of 2010-2019. The systematic review was performed on September 1, 2019, using PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science; studies published after January 1, 2010, were selected. The data were summarized in tables, critically analyzed, and treated statistically using the RStudio® Software with Meta package and Metaprop Command. After applying exclusion factors, 41 relevant studies were selected from 969 articles identified on literature search. The overall rate of polymyxin-resistant A. baumannii (PRAB) related to hospitalized patients was estimated to be 13% (95% CI, 0.06-0.27), where a higher rate was observed in America (29%; 95% CI, 0.12-0.55), followed by Europe (13%; 95% CI, 0.02-0.52), and Asia (10%; 95% CI, 0.02-0.32). The extensive use of polymyxins on veterinary to control bacterial infection and growth promotion, as well as the resurgence in prescription and use of polymyxins in the clinics against carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria, may have contributed to the increased incidence of PRAB. The findings of this meta-analysis revealed that the rate of PRAB recovered from hospitalized patients is distinctively high. Thus, action needs to be taken to develop strategies to combat the clinical incidence of PRAB-induced hospital infections.

Purpose: Evaluation of PnPP-19 safety and efficacy in reducing the intraocular pressure (IOP) of animals with healthy (normotensive) and ocular hypertensive eyes. PnPP-19 is a synthetic peptide designed from Phoneutria nigriventer spider toxin PnTx2-6., Methods: Toxicity tests used chicken chorioallantoic membranes. Electroretinograms (ERGs) were recorded before and after administration of different doses of PnPP-19 on the eyes of Wistar rats. Histological sections of corneas and retinas were prepared. The efficacy of PnPP-19 in reducing IOP was evaluated for normotensive and ocular hypertensive animals using a tonometer. Ocular hypertension was induced in the right eye through injection of hyaluronic acid (HA) into the anterior chamber. ERG was recorded before and after glaucoma induction. The eyes were enucleated, and the corneas and retinas were histologically evaluated., Results: PnPP-19 showed no toxicity, being safe for ocular application. A single topical instillation of one eye drop of the peptide solution was able to reduce IOP, both in healthy and ocular hypertensive rats, for 24 hours, without eliciting any apparent toxicity. PnPP-19 is a nitric oxide inducer and the results suggest that it may improve the conventional outflow of aqueous humor (AH), preventing the progression of optic nerve degeneration., Conclusions: PnPP-19 has great potential to emerge as a promising drug for the treatment of ocular hypertension., Translational Relevance: We regard our findings as exciting progress in translational glaucoma research, combining drug discovery, natural product research, and pharmacology, which may contribute to the establishment of new therapies for the treatment of this disease., Competing Interests: Disclosure: C.N. da Silva, Biozeus (F); L.F.N. Dourado, Biozeus (F); M.E. de Lima, Biozeus (F); A. da Silva Cunha-Jr, Biozeus (F), (Copyright 2020 The Authors.)

This study reports the purification of ML-LAAO, a new LAAO from the venom of Micrurus lemniscatus snake (ML-V), using size exclusion chromatography. ML-LAAO is a 69-kDa glycoprotein that represents ~2.0% of total venom proteins. This enzyme exhibited optimal activity at pH 8.5, displaying high specificity toward hydrophobic l-amino acids. MALDI TOF/TOF and Blast analysis identified internal segments in ML-LAAO that share high sequence identity with homologous snake venom LAAOs. Western blot analysis on two-dimensional SDS-PAGE of ML-V, using anti-LAAO revealed the presence of ML-LAAO isoforms (pI 6.3-8.9). ML-LAAO blocked aggregation induced by collagen on washed platelets in a rather weak manner, it did not, however, inhibit platelet aggregation induced by ADP on platelet-rich plasma. In addition, this enzyme displayed in vitro antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC/MBC of 0.39 μg/mL) and in vitro leishmanicidal action against Leishmania amazonensis and L. chagasi (IC 50 values of 0.14 and 0.039 μg/mL, respectively). These activities were significantly reduced by catalase, suggesting that hydrogen peroxide production is involved in some way. The data presented here revealed that ML-LAAO has bactericidal and leishmanicidal effects, suggesting that it may have therapeutic potential., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Animal venoms are an almost inexhaustible source for promising molecules with biological activity and the venom of Phoneutria nigriventer spider is a good example of this. Among several other toxins obtained from this venom, PnTx4(6-1), also called δ-Ctenitoxin-Pn1a, was isolated and initially described as an insect toxin that binds to the site 3 of sodium channels in cockroach nerve cord synaptosomes ( Periplaneta americana ) and slows down sodium current inactivation in isolated axons of this animal. This toxin did not cause any apparent toxicity to mice when intracerebroventricularly injected (30 μg). Subsequently, it was demonstrated that PnTx4(6-1) has an antinociceptive effect in three different pain models: inflammatory, induced by carrageenan; nociceptive, induced by prostaglandin E 2 and neuropathic, induced by sciatic nerve constriction. Using diverse antagonists from receptors, it was shown that the cannabinoid system, via the CB 1 receptor, and the opioid system, through the μ and δ receptors, are both involved in the antinociceptive effect of PnTx4(6-1). In the present work, it was synthesized a peptide, named PnAn13, based on the amino acid sequence of PnTx4(6-1) in order to try to reproduce or increase the analgesic effect of the toxin. As it was seen for the toxin, PnAn13 had antinociceptive activity, when intrathecally injected, and this effect involved the cannabinoid and opioid systems. In addition, when it was evaluated the peripheral effect of PnAn13, via intraplantar administration, this peptide was able to reverse the hyperalgesic threshold, evoked by prostaglandin E 2 . Therefore, using different pharmacological tools, it was shown the participation of cannabinoid and opioid systems in this effect., Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interests to declare. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Background: Piperine, an amide extracted from the Piper spices, exhibits strong anti-tumor properties. However, its effect on the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process has never been investigated. Herein, we evaluate the toxic effect of piperine on lung adenocarcinoma (A549), breast adenocarcinoma (MDA-MB-231) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell lines, as well as its ability to inhibit EMT-related events induced by TGF-β1 treatment. Methods: The cell viability was investigated by MTT assay. Protein expression was evaluated by Western blot. Gene expression was monitored by real-time PCR. Zymography assay was employed to detect metalloproteinase (MMP) activity in conditioned media. Cell motility was assessed by the wound-healing and phagokinetic gold sol assays. Results: The results revealed that piperine was cytotoxic in concentrations over 100 µM, showing IC50 values for HepG2, MDA-MB-231 and A549 cell lines of 214, 238 and 198 µM, respectively. In order to investigate whether piperine would reverse the TGF-β1 induced-EMT, the A549 cell line was pretreated with sublethal concentrations of the natural amide followed by the addition of TGF-β1. Besides disrupting EMT-related events, piperine also inhibited both ERK 1/2 and SMAD 2 phosphorylation. Conclusions: These results suggest that piperine might be further used in therapeutic strategies for metastatic cancer and EMT-related disorders.

NPCdc is a synthetic natriuretic peptide that was originally derived from another peptide, the NP2_Casca, isolated from Crotalus durissus cascavella venom. These molecules share 70% structural homology with natriuretic peptides obtained from different species, including humans. NP2_Casca induces vasorelaxation and increases nitric oxide levels independently of natriuretic peptide receptors A and B. This study aimed to investigate whether NPCdc-induced hypotension in control rats and rats with a reduced kidney mass is associated with effects on the glomerular filtration rate, NADPH oxidase activity and components downstream of natriuretic peptide receptor C (NPR-C). Anaesthetized Wistar rats that were subjected to a sham operation and 5/6 nephrectomy (5/6Nx) were infused with saline (vehicle) or NPCdc (7.5 μg/kg/min) for 70 min. The NPCdc treatment decreased the mean arterial pressure and NADPH oxidase activity while simultaneously increasing the glomerular filtration rate, fractional Na + excretion and nitric oxide level. After 70 min, the levels of p-AKT Ser-473 , p-eNOS Ser-1177 , p-nNOS Ser-1417 and p-iNOS Tyr-151 were not affected. However, p-ERK1/2 Thr-202/Tyr-204 levels were altered. Thus, nitric oxide and components of NPR-C signalling mediate the effects of NPCdc. The results suggest a potential therapeutic application of this peptide for cardiorenal syndrome., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been found in all organism taxa and may play an essential role as a host defense system. AMPs are organized in various conformations, such as linear peptides, disulfide bond-linked peptides, backbone-linked peptides and circular peptides. AMPs apparently act primarily on the plasma membrane, although an increasing number of works have shown that they may also target various intracellular sites. Spider venoms are rich sources of biomolecules that show several activities, including modulation or blockage of ion channels, anti-insect, anti-cancer, antihypertensive and antimicrobial activities, among others. In spider venoms from the Lycosidae family there are many linear AMPs with a wide range of activities against several microorganisms. Due to these singular activities, some Lycosidae AMPs have been modified to improve or decrease desirable or undesirable effects, respectively. Such modifications, especially with the aim of increasing their antibiotic activity, have led to the filing of many patent applications. This review explores the abundance of Lycosidae venom AMPs and some of their derivatives, and their use as new drug models., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)

Background: The venom of Phoneutria nigriventer spider is a source of numerous bioactive substances, including some toxins active in insects. An example is PnTx4(5-5) that shows a high insecticidal activity and no apparent toxicity to mice, although it inhibited NMDA-evoked currents in rat hippocampal neurons. In this work the analgesic activity of PnTx4(5-5) (renamed Γ-ctenitoxin-Pn1a) was investigated., Methods: The antinociceptive activity was evaluated using the paw pressure test in rats, after hyperalgesia induction with intraplantar injection of carrageenan or prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 )., Results: PnTx4(5-5), subcutaneously injected, was able to reduce the hyperalgesia induced by PGE 2 in rat paw, demonstrating a systemic effect. PnTx4(5-5) administered in the plantar surface of the paw caused a peripheral and dose-dependent antinociceptive effect on hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan or PGE 2 . The hyperalgesic effect observed in these two pain models was completely reversed with 5 µg of PnTx4(5-5). Intraplantar administration of L-glutamate induced hyperalgesic effect that was significantly reverted by 5 μg of PnTx4(5-5) injection in rat paw., Conclusion: The antinociceptive effect for PnTx4(5-5) was demonstrated against different rat pain models, i.e. induced by PGE 2 , carrageenan or glutamate. We suggest that the antinociceptive effect of PnTx4(5-5) may be related to an inhibitory activity on the glutamatergic system., Competing Interests: Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

While precise mechanisms underlying cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are still not fully understood, previous studies suggest that the innate immune system, through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), plays a crucial part in the pathways leading to these diseases, mainly because of its interplay with endogenous molecules. The Heat-shock protein 70 family (HSP70-70kDa) is of particular interest in cardiovascular tissues as it may have dual effects when interacting with TLR4 pathways. Although the hypothesis of the HSP70 family members acting as TLR4 ligands is becoming widely accepted, to date no co-crystal structure of this complex is available and it is still unknown whether this process requires the co-adaptor MD2. In this study, we aimed at investigating the interplay between the TLR4/MD2 complex and HSP70 family members in the human cardiovascular system through transcriptomic data analysis and at proposing a putative interaction model between these proteins. We report compelling evidence of correlated expression levels between TLR4 and MD2 with HSP70 cognate family members, especially in heart tissue. In our molecular docking simulations, we found that HSP70 in the ATP-bound state presents a better docking score towards the TLR4/MD2 complex compared to the ADP-bound state (-22.60 vs. -10.29 kcal/mol, respectively). Additionally, we show via a proximity ligation assay for HSP70 and TLR4, that cells stimulated with ATP have higher formation of fluorescent spots and that MD2 might be required for the complexation of these proteins. The insights provided by our computational approach are potential scaffolds for future in vivo studies investigating the interplay between the TLR4/MD2 complex and HSP70 family members in the cardiovascular system.

Bacterial keratitis is an ocular infection that can lead to severe visual disability. Staphylococcus aureus is a major pathogen of the eye. We recently demonstrated the strong antimicrobial activity of LyeTxI-b, a synthetic peptide derived from a Lycosa erithrognatha toxin. Herein, we evaluated a topical formulation (eye drops) containing LyeTxI-b to treat resistant bacterial keratitis. Keratitis was induced with intrastromal injection of 4 × 10⁵ cells (4 µL) in New Zealand female white rabbits. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and biofilm viability were determined. LyeTxI-b ocular toxicity was evaluated through chorioallantoic membrane and Draize tests. One drop of the formulation (LyeTxI-b 28.9 µmol/L +0.5% CMC in 0.9% NaCl) was instilled into each eye four times a day, for a week. Slit-lamp biomicroscopy analysis, corneal histopathological studies and cellular infiltrate quantification through myeloperoxidase (MPO) and N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAG) detection were performed. LyeTxI-b was very effective in the treatment of keratitis, with no signs of ocular toxicity. Planktonic bacteria MIC was 3.6 µmol/L and LyeTxI-b treatment reduced biofilm viability in 90%. LyeTxI-b eliminated bacteria and reduced inflammatory cellular activity in the eyes. Healthy and treated animals showed similar NAG and MPO levels. LyeTxI-b is a potent new drug to treat resistant bacterial keratitis, showing effective antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity.

A 13 aa residue voltage-gated sodium (Na V ) channel inhibitor peptide, Pn, containing 2 disulfide bridges was designed by using a chimeric approach. This approach was based on a common pharmacophore deduced from sequence and secondary structural homology of 2 Na V inhibitors: Conus kinoshitai toxin IIIA, a 14 residue cone snail peptide with 3 disulfide bonds, and Phoneutria nigriventer toxin 1, a 78 residue spider toxin with 7 disulfide bonds. As with the parent peptides, this novel Na V channel inhibitor was active on Na V 1.2. Through the generation of 3 series of peptide mutants, we investigated the role of key residues and cyclization and their influence on Na V inhibition and subtype selectivity. Cyclic PnCS1, a 10 residue peptide cyclized via a disulfide bond, exhibited increased inhibitory activity toward therapeutically relevant Na V channel subtypes, including Na V 1.7 and Na V 1.9, while displaying remarkable serum stability. These peptides represent the first and the smallest cyclic peptide Na V modulators to date and are promising templates for the development of toxin-based therapeutic agents.-Peigneur, S., Cheneval, O., Maiti, M., Leipold, E., Heinemann, S. H., Lescrinier, E., Herdewijn, P., De Lima, M. E., Craik, D. J., Schroeder, C. I., Tytgat, J. Where cone snails and spiders meet: design of small cyclic sodium-channel inhibitors.

Antimicrobial peptides present a broad spectrum of therapeutic applications, including their use as anticancer peptides. These peptides have as target microbial, normal, and cancerous cells. The oncological properties of these peptides may occur by membranolytic mechanisms or non-membranolytics. In this work, we demonstrate for the first time the cytotoxic effects of the cationic alpha-helical antimicrobial peptide LyeTx I-b on glioblastoma lineage U87-MG. The anticancer property of this peptide was associated with a membranolytic mechanism. Loss of membrane integrity occurred after incubation with the peptide for 15 min, as shown by trypan blue uptake, reduction of calcein-AM conversion, and LDH release. Morphological studies using scanning electron microscopy demonstrated disruption of the plasma membrane from cells treated with LyeTx I-b, including the formation of holes or pores. Transmission electron microscopy analyses showed swollen nuclei with mild DNA condensation, cell volume increase with an electron-lucent cytoplasm and organelle vacuolization, but without the rupture of nuclear or plasmatic membranes. Morphometric analyses revealed a high percentage of cells in necroptosis stages, followed by necrosis and apoptosis at lower levels. Necrostatin-1, a known inhibitor of necroptosis, partially protected the cells from the toxicity of the peptide in a concentration-dependent manner. Imaging flow cytometry confirmed that 59% of the cells underwent necroptosis after 3-h incubation with the peptide. It is noteworthy that LyeTx I-b showed only mild cytotoxicity against normal fibroblasts of human and monkey cell lines and low hemolytic activity in human erythrocytes. All data together point out the anticancer potential of this peptide.

Positive influence of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) on human health issues has been attributed to its frequent consumption in South American countries and is assumed to be due to its high content of antioxidant compounds, including chlorogenic acid (CGA); however, hard evidence about its positive effects under chronic stress conditions is still required. In this study, the effects of yerba mate extracts (IpE), and its main compound chlorogenic acid (CGA), on behavioral and morphological endpoints of brain damage induced by chronic restraint stress (CRS) to rats were evaluated and compared. CRS sessions were performed during 21 days. IpE (200 mg/mL, p.o.) or CGA (2 mg/mL, p.o.) were administered daily 30 min before stress. Behavioral tests comprised motor skills and anxiety-like activity. Histological (H&E) and histochemical changes were explored in three brain regions: cortex (Cx), hippocampus (Hp), and striatum (S). Rats subjected to CRS exhibited hypoactive patterns of locomotor activity. Rats receiving IpE before CRS preserved the basal locomotor activity. Stressed animals also augmented the anxiety-like activity, whereas IpE normalized exploratory behavior. Stressed animals presented cell damage in all regions. Morphological damage was more effectively prevented by IpE than CGA. Stressed animals also augmented the expression/localization pattern of the tumor necrosis factor alpha in the striatum and the expression of the glial fibrillary acidic protein in the hippocampus (stratum moleculare) and cortex, whereas IpE and CGA reduced the expression of these molecules. In turn, CGA exhibited only moderate protective effects on all markers analyzed. Our findings support a protective role of IpE against CRS, which may be related to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of its compounds. Since CGA was unable to prevent all the alterations induced by CRS, it is concluded that the protective properties of the whole extract of Ilex paraguariensis are the result of the combined effects of all its natural antioxidant compounds, and not only of the properties of CGA.

Background: The great diversity of molecules found in spider venoms include amino acids, polyamines, proteins and peptides, among others. Some of these compounds can interact with different neuronal receptors and ion channels including those present in the ocular system. To study potential toxicity and safety of intravitreal injection in rabbits of LyeTx I b, a synthetic peptide derived from the toxin LyeTx I found in venom from the spider Lycosa eritrognatha and to evaluate the angiogenic activity on a CAM model., Methods: ARPE-19 cells were treated with LyeTx I b (0.36; 0.54; 0.72; 2.89; 4.34 or 9.06 μM). In this study, New Zealand rabbits were used. LyeTx I b (2.89 μM) labeled with FITC dissolved in PBS, or only PBS, were injected into vitreous humor. Electroretinogram (ERG) was recorded 1 day before injection and at 7, 14 and 28 days post-injection. Clinical examination of the retina was conducted through tonometer and eye fundus after ERG. Eyes were enucleated and retinas were prepared for histology in order to assess retinal structure. CAMs were exposed to LyeTx I b (0.54; 0.72; 2.17 or 2.89 μM)., Results: ARPE-19 cells exposed to LyeTx I b showed cell viability at the same levels of the control. The fluorescence of LyeTx I b labeled with FITC indicated its retinal localization. Our findings indicate ERG responses from rats injected in the eye with LyeTx I b were very similar to the corresponding responses of those animals injected only with vehicle. Clinical examination found no alterations of intraocular pressure or retinal integrity. No histological damage in retinal layers was observed. CAM presented reduced neovascularization when exposed to LyeTx I b., Conclusions: Intravitreal injection of LyeTx I b is safe for use in the rabbit eye and prevents neovascularization in the CAM model, at Bevacizumab levels. These findings support intravitreal LyeTx I b as a good candidate to develop future alternative treatment for the retina in neovascularization diseases., Competing Interests: The study was approved by the Committee for Ethics in the Use of Animals (CEUA, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Protocol n° 298/2017). All the experiments were conducted in accordance with the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO).Not applicable.The authors declare that they have no competing interests.Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Molecules exhibiting antioxidant, neuroprotective, and regulatory properties inherent to natural products consumed by humans are gaining attention in biomedical research. Ferulic acid (FA) is a phenolic compound possessing antioxidant and cytoprotective properties. It is found in several vegetables, including sugarcane, where it serves as the main antioxidant component. Here, we compared the antioxidant and cytoprotective effects of FA with those of the total sugarcane aqueous extract (SCAE). Specifically, we assessed biochemical markers of cell dysfunction in rat cortical brain slices and markers of physiological stress in Caenorhabditis elegans upon exposure to toxins evoking different mechanisms of neurotoxicity, including direct oxidative stress and/or excitotoxicity. In rat cortical slices, FA (250 and 500 μM), but not SCAE (~ 270 μM of total polyphenols), prevented the loss of reductive capacity induced by the excitotoxin quinolinic acid (QUIN, 100 μM), the pro-oxidant agent ferrous sulfate (FeSO 4 , 25 μM), and the dopaminergic pro-oxidant 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA, 100 μM). In wild-type (N2) C. elegans, FA (38 mM) exerted protective effects on decreased survival induced by FeSO 4 (15 mM) and 6-OHDA (25 mM), and the motor alterations induced by QUIN (100 mM), FeSO 4 , and 6-OHDA. In contrast, SCAE (~ 13.5 mM of total polyphenols) evoked protective effects on the decreased survival induced by the three toxic agents, the motor alterations induced by FeSO 4 , and the reproductive deficit induced by FeSO 4 . In addition, FA was unable to reverse the decreased survival induced by all these toxins in the skn-1 -/- strain (VC1772), which lacks the homolog of mammalian Nrf2, a master antioxidant gene. Altogether, our results suggest that (1) both FA and SCAE afford protection against toxic conditions, (2) not all the effects inherent to SCAE are due to FA, and (3) FA requires the skn-1 pathway to exert its protective effects in C. elegans.

The Tityus serrulatus scorpion species represents a serious human health threat to in Brazil because it is among the animals that produces the most dangerous venoms for mammals in South America. Its venom has provided several highly selective ligands that specifically interact with sodium and potassium channels. During the past decades, several international groups published an increasing amount of data on the isolation and the chemical, pharmacological and immunological characterisation of its main β-toxin, Ts1. In this review, we compiled the best available past and recent knowledge on Ts1. Aside from its intricate purification, the state-of-the-art understanding concerning its pharmacological activities is presented. Its solved three-dimensional structure is shown, as well as the possible surface areas of contact between Ts1 and its diverse voltage-gated Na + channel targets. Organisations of the gene and the precursor encoding Ts1 are also tackled based on available cDNA clones or on information obtained from polymerase chain reactions of stretches of scorpion DNA. At last, the immunological studies complete with Ts1 to set up an efficient immunotherapy against the Tityus serrulatus venom are summarized., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

In millions of years, spiders have optimized their venoms in order to assure successful prey capture and defence against predators. Spider venoms have become unique cocktails of biological active components enabling potentially interesting application for drug discovery or for agricultural purposes. The venom of Phoneutria nigriventer has been studied for over 60 years. This spider is responsible for a high number of envenomations with severe clinical manifestations in humans, which necessitates a comprehensive knowledge of its venom composition. With over 40 different neurotoxic peptides characterized so far and still many more awaiting identification, this venom is undoubtedly a pharmacological treasure. This review provides an overview of the Phoneutria nigriventer toxins known today and describes their mechanism of action at a molecular level. We critically discuss the potential of the Phoneutria nigriventer venom peptides as pharmaceutical tools or lead compounds for drug development., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Lethal factors are multifunctional oligomeric proteins found in the venomous apparatus of Scorpaeniformes fish. These toxins elicit not only an array of biological responses in vitro but also cardiovascular disorders and strong hemolytic, nociceptive and edematogenic activities in vivo. This work describes the cloning and molecular identification of two toxin subunits, denominated Sp-CTx-α and Sp-CTx-β, from scorpionfish venom ( Scorpaena plumieri )., Methods: The primary structures were deduced after cDNA amplification by PCR with primers from conserved sequences described in Scorpaeniformes toxins. Following DNA sequencing and bioinformatic analysis, the tridimensional structures of both subunits were modeled., Results: The translated sequences (702 amino acids, each subunit) show homology with other lethal factors, while alignment between Sp-CTx-α and Sp-CTx-β shows 54% identity. The subunits lack N-terminal signal sequences and display masses of approximately 80 kDa each. Both Sp-CTx subunits display a B30.2/SPRY domain at the C-terminal region with typically conserved motifs as described in these toxins. Secondary structure prediction identified six α-helices 18 residues long in both α and β subunits, some of them amphiphilic with their N-terminal flanked by many basic residues, creating a cationic site associated with the cytolytic activity of these toxins. Antimicrobial potential sites were identified in Sp-CTx and share some features with other peptides presenting variable and broad-spectrum activity. A phylogenetic tree built to represent these toxins supports the proximity between scorpionfish, lionfish and stonefish., Conclusion: The study identified a putative toxin protein whose primary structure is similar to other fish toxins and with potential for production of antivenom against scorpionfish envenomation in Brazil. As a prelude to structure-function studies, we propose that the toxin is structurally related to pore-forming marine toxins., Competing Interests: Fishing of the specimens used in the present study was authorized by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA).Not applicable.The authors declare that they have no competing interests.Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Spider venoms are complex mixtures of biologically active components with potentially interesting applications for drug discovery or for agricultural purposes. The spider Phoneutria nigriventer is responsible for a number of envenomations with sometimes severe clinical manifestations in humans. A more efficient treatment requires a comprehensive knowledge of the venom composition and of the action mechanism of the constituting components. PnTx2-1 (also called δ-ctenitoxin-Pn1a) is a 53-amino-acid-residue peptide isolated from the venom fraction PhTx2. Although PnTx2-1 is classified as a neurotoxin, its molecular target has remained unknown. This study describes the electrophysiological characterization of PnTx2-1 as a modulator of voltage-gated sodium channels. PnTx2-1 is investigated for its activity on seven mammalian Na V -channel isoforms, one insect Na V channel and one arachnid Na V channel. Furthermore, comparison of the activity of both PnTx2-1 and PnTx2-6 on Na V 1.5 channels reveals that this family of Phoneutria toxins modulates the cardiac Na V channel in a bifunctional manner, resulting in an alteration of the inactivation process and a reduction of the sodium peak current.

PhTx2 is the most toxic fraction from the venom of the spider Phoneutria nigriventer, being responsible to sodium entry into cortical synaptosomes, increasing the release of neurotransmitters, such as l-glutamate (L-Glu) and; acetylcholine. In this study, we investigated the action of a toxin purified from; PhTx2 fraction, called PnTx2-6 or δ-CNTX-Pn2a, on L-Glu release from rat; brain cortex synaptosomes, as well as its ability to induce blood-brain barrier permeability. PnTx2-6 increased L-Glu release from rat cortical brain synaptosomes in a time- and dose-dependent manner (EC50 = ∼20 nM; Tm = 16min), as measured by a fluorimetric method. The increase of L-Glu by PnTx2-6 was inhibited by tetrodotoxin. And partially inhibited by EGTA. Calcium channel blockers ω-conotoxin MVIIC (P/Q-types) and ω-conotoxin GVIA (N-type), were able to reduce the PnTx2-6-induced release of L-Glu, while nifedipine (L-type) did not show any inhibition. These findings suggest that thew release of L-Glu by PnTx2-6 is due its primary action on sodium channels, well-known to be target of this toxin. PnTx2-6 is able to potentiate penile erection and this effect may be related with the release of l-glutamate from the CNS, besides a local effect on corpus carvenosum, as previously shown by our group. If L-Glu release and penile erection potentiation are indeed correlated, then this toxin should be able to cross the blood brain barrier (BBB). Results by immunoblotting assays indicated a change in the expression of proteins associated with the paracellular and transcellular transport at the blood-brain barrier, suggesting a BBB dysfunction mediated by PnTx2-6. Therefore, PnTx2-6 may induce the release l-glutamate in the central nervous system, when injected peripherally., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Temporary passive immunity such as serotherapy against venoms requires the full knowledge of all venom's components. Here, four venoms from Moroccan common yellow scorpions belonging to Buthus occitanus, subspecies tunetanus, paris, malhommei, and mardochei, all collected in four different restricted areas, were analysed in deep. They were fractionated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and their molecular masse profile determined by off-line MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Characterisation of their main components was achieved by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using specific antisera against the major lethal scorpion toxins identified so far, i.e. voltage-gated sodium channels (Na v ) modulators α- and β-toxins, as well as diverse potassium channel pore blocker toxins. For fractions with identical RP-HPLC retention times, we observe that their relative quantities show large differences. Moreover, identical masses present simultaneously in the four venoms are infrequent. ELISAs show that the majority of the RP-HPLC compounds cross-react with the antiserum against the "α-like" toxin Bot I, which has been previously identified in the Algerian Buthus occitanus tunetanus venom. Moreover, minor fractions were recognised by the antiserum against the highly lethal "classical" α-toxin of reference AaH II from the Androctonus australis venom. As such, our results bring new sights for further improving scorpion venom serotherapy in Morocco., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)