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Otsuka and Kawaguchi investigate how manipulation of pyramidal cell subtypes in the motor cortex affects cortical network activity. Their findings suggest that pyramidal cell type cell-dependent oscillatory activity play an important role in motor learning.

Summary: Precise regulation of neuronal migration termination is crucial for the establishment of brain cytoarchitectures. However, little is known about how neurons terminate migration. Here we focused on interactions between migrating cortical neurons and their substrates, radial glial (RG) cells, and analyzed the role of Plexin A2 and A4 (PlxnA2/A4) receptors and their repulsive ligand, Semaphorin 6A (Sema6A), for this process. In both PlxnA2/A4 double-knockout and Sema6A mutant mice, the outermost cortical plate neurons ectopically invade layer 1 at a stage when they should reach their destinations. PlxnA2/A4 proteins are abundantly expressed on their leading processes, whereas Sema6A mRNA is enriched in RG cell somata. Cell-targeted gene expression and conditional knockouts indicate critical roles for these molecules. We hypothesize that the timely appearance of repulsive signaling mediated by Sema6A–PlxnA2/A4 weakens migrating neuron–RG cell interactions, leading to migration termination. : Biological Sciences; Molecular Biology; Neuroscience; Molecular Neuroscience; Cellular Neuroscience Subject Areas: Biological Sciences, Molecular Biology, Neuroscience, Molecular Neuroscience, Cellular Neuroscience

In this paper, the characteristics of a transitionally rough turbulent flow over a real rough surface are examined. In our research, high-resolution large eddy simulations over a scanned marine painted rough surface were carried out, and the friction Reynolds number and roughness Reynolds number (inner-scaled roughness height) were systematically varied. Away from the rough surface, the mean velocity and Reynolds stresses are unaffected by the mean roughness height. Further, the similarity away from the rough surface is clearly confirmed when we use the effective wall-normal distance. The effective wall-normal distance is defined as the wall-normal integral of the plane-porosity (void fraction). Moreover, near the rough surface, the Reynolds stresses asymptotically decay toward the bottom of the rough surface when plotted against the inner-scaled effective distance. The profiles of the mean velocity and Reynolds stresses against the effective distance reveal that the mean velocity profile can be characterized by the roughness Reynolds number (inner-scaled roughness length scale). However, the other parameters should be considered when characterizing the near-wall Reynolds stress behavior. When the budget terms in the plane and Reynolds averaged momentum equations are analyzed, it is found that the drag force term dominates the momentum transfer in the vicinity of the bottom of the rough surface. As the roughness Reynolds number increases, the pressure drag contribution to the skin friction coefficient increases, while the viscous contribution decreases.

Electron microscopy requires electrically conductive and grounded samples to provide high-resolution, high-contrast images. Here, Kubota et al. describe a suitable carbon nanotube based tape for automated serial section collection and imaging, as in ATUM-based electron microscopy.

There exist two major types of striatum-targeting neocortical neurons, specifically, intratelencephalic (IT) neurons and pyramidal-tract (PT) neurons. Regarding their striatal projections, it was once suggested that IT axons are extended whereas PT axons are primarily focal. However, subsequent study with an increased number of well-stained extended axons concluded that such an apparent distinction was spurious due to limited sample size. Recent work using genetically labeled neurons reintroduced the differential spatial extent of the striatal projections of IT and PT neurons through population-level analyses, complemented by observations of single axons. However, quantitative IT vs. PT comparison of a large number of axons remained to be conducted. We analyzed the data of axonal end-points of 161 IT neurons and 33 PT neurons in the MouseLight database (http://ml-neuronbrowser.janelia.org/). The number of axonal end-points in the ipsilateral striatum exhibits roughly monotonically decreasing distributions in both neuron types. Excluding neurons with no ipsilateral end-point, the distributions of the logarithm of the number of ipsilateral end-points are considerably overlapped between IT and PT neurons, although the proportion of neurons having more than 50 ipsilateral end-points is somewhat larger in IT neurons than in PT neurons. Looking at more details, among IT subpopulations in the secondary motor area (MOs), layer 5 neurons and bilateral striatum-targeting layer 2/3 neurons, but not contralateral striatum-non-targeting layer 2/3 neurons, have a larger number of ipsilateral end-points than MOs PT neurons. We also found that IT ipsilateral striatal axonal end-points are on average more widely distributed than PT end-points, especially in the medial-lateral direction. These results indicate that IT and PT striatal axons differ in the frequencies and spatial extent of end-points while there are wide varieties within each neuron type.

The hypothesis that the basal-ganglia direct and indirect pathways represent goodness (or benefit) and badness (or cost) of options, respectively, explains a wide range of phenomena. However, this hypothesis, named the Opponent Actor Learning (OpAL), still has limitations. Structurally, the OpAL model does not incorporate differentiation of the two types of cortical inputs to the basal-ganglia pathways received from intratelencephalic (IT) and pyramidal-tract (PT) neurons. Functionally, the OpAL model does not describe the temporal-difference (TD)-type reward-prediction-error (RPE), nor explains how RPE is calculated in the circuitry connecting to the DA neurons. In fact, there is a different hypothesis on the basal-ganglia pathways and DA, named the Cortico-Striatal-Temporal-Difference (CS-TD) model. The CS-TD model differentiates the IT and PT inputs, describes the TD-type RPE, and explains how TD-RPE is calculated. However, a critical difficulty in this model lies in its assumption that DA induces the same direction of plasticity in both direct and indirect pathways, which apparently contradicts the experimentally observed opposite effects of DA on these pathways. Here, we propose a new hypothesis that integrates the OpAL and CS-TD models. Specifically, we propose that the IT-basal-ganglia pathways represent goodness/badness of current options while the PT-indirect pathway represents the overall value of the previously chosen option, and both of these have influence on the DA neurons, through the basal-ganglia output, so that a variant of TD-RPE is calculated. A key assumption is that opposite directions of plasticity are induced upon phasic activation of DA neurons in the IT-indirect pathway and PT-indirect pathway because of different profiles of IT and PT inputs. Specifically, at PT→indirect-pathway-medium-spiny-neuron (iMSN) synapses, sustained glutamatergic inputs generate rich adenosine, which allosterically prevents DA-D2 receptor signaling and instead favors adenosine-A2A receptor signaling. Then, phasic DA-induced phasic adenosine, which reflects TD-RPE, causes long-term synaptic potentiation. In contrast, at IT→iMSN synapses where adenosine is scarce, phasic DA causes long-term synaptic depression via D2 receptor signaling. This new Opponency and Temporal-Difference (OTD) model provides unique predictions, part of which is potentially in line with recently reported activity patterns of neurons in the globus pallidus externus on the indirect pathway.

Serum carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA 19-9), a marker of malignant tumors, is generally slightly elevated in benign conditions. We report a case of acute cholecystitis with a significantly elevated level of serum CA 19-9 based on positron emission tomography (PET)-computed tomography (CT) findings. A 65-year-old woman presented with abdominal pain and fever. A CT image revealed an enlarged gallbladder without tumor shadows. The C-reactive protein (CRP) level was elevated to 7.66 mg/dl. Moreover, the serum CA 19-9 level was significantly elevated to 19,392 U/ml. We started antibiotic treatment, because we suspected acute cholecystitis, but still, we could not ignore the possible presence of malignant tumors. After 11 days of antibiotic treatment, serum CRP and CA 19-9 levels decreased to 0.11 mg/dl and 1,049 U/ml, respectively. There was an accumulation of fluorine 18-labeled fluorodeoxyglucose (maximum standardized uptake value, 9.3) without tumor shadows in the liver, near the gallbladder, on the PET-CT examination. We considered the possibility that the inflammation had spread from the gallbladder to the liver, made a diagnosis of acute cholecystitis, and performed a cholecystectomy 33 days after treatment initiation. The serum CA 19-9 level decreased to 45 U/ml after the surgery. One year after the surgery, the patient was alive, and the serum CA 19-9 level was 34 U/ml. Acute cholecystitis with a significantly high elevation of the serum CA 19-9 level is rare. In such cases, it is important to confirm the change in the serum CA 19-9 level over time after antibiotic treatment and perform imaging studies to distinguish between inflammation and malignancy.

One recent technical innovation in neuroscience is microcircuit analysis using three-dimensional reconstructions of neural elements with a large volume Electron microscopy (EM) data set. Large-scale data sets are acquired with newly-developed electron microscope systems such as automated tape-collecting ultramicrotomy (ATUM) with scanning EM (SEM), serial block-face EM (SBEM) and focused ion beam-SEM (FIB-SEM). Currently, projects are also underway to develop computer applications for the registration and segmentation of the serially-captured electron micrographs that are suitable for analyzing large volume EM data sets thoroughly and efficiently. The analysis of large volume data sets can bring innovative research results. These recently available techniques promote our understanding of the functional architecture of the brain.

Direct numerical simulations of thermal turbulent boundary layer flows over a wavy wall surface are performed to investigate the effect of a wavelength on drag coefficients and heat transfer performance. The Reynolds number based on an inlet boundary layer thickness is set to be 2820 and the Prandtl number is set to be Pr = 0.71 and 2.0. The wavy wall surface is homogeneous in the spanwise direction and the wave amplitude is fixed at 2a+ = 20. The six wavelength cases of λ/2a = 7.5 ～ 45 are examined. As the wavelength decreases, the skin-friction drag decreases and the pressure drag and heat transfer increase. The total drag peaks at λ/2a = 12.5 and the flow separation occurs at λ/2a < 15. In the separation region, the backward flow transfers the heat and results in a negative correlation coefficient between the velocity and temperature of R (u′tT′ ) at the bottom of the wavy wall. Spindle-shaped spots of the Nusselt number are also observed on the upslope of the wavy wall.

Experimental investigation of the relationship between mass transfer and turbulent drag reduction of the drag-reducing channel flow with dosed polymer solution from a wall was carried out. Planar laser induced fluorescence (PLIF) measurement was employed to investigate the mass transfer of dosed polymer solution. In addition, the polymer concentration distribution was measured directly by extracting samples from the channel flow (Sampling method). In the PLIF measurement, Reynolds number based on the channel height was set to 20000 and poly(ethylene oxide) was used as a polymer. The polymer solution with a concentration from 10 ppm to 200 ppm was dosed at 3 L/min from the whole surface of the wall. As a result, in the case of water flow, dosed dyed water was ejected from the wall and was well diffused by the strong turbulent eddy motion. In contrast, when the polymer solution was dosed from the wall, the diffusion was largely suppressed in the near-wall region and drag reduction occurred. This result indicates that turbulent diffusion was suppressed in the near-wall region and momentum transport in the wall-normal direction was also largely suppressed. Moreover, because the polymer solution could be provided continuously into the channel flow downstream of the leading edge of the blowing wall, the drag reduction rate was reduced downstream. Finally, we estimated the Sherwood number based on the mass transfer logic, and the relationship between the drag reduction and mass transfer was discussed.

Inhibitory interneurons target precise membrane regions on pyramidal cells, but differences in their functional effects on somata, dendrites and spines remain unclear. We analyzed inhibitory synaptic events induced by cortical, fast-spiking (FS) basket cells which innervate dendritic shafts and spines as well as pyramidal cell somata. Serial electron micrograph (EMg) reconstructions showed that somatic synapses were larger than dendritic contacts. Simulations with precise anatomical and physiological data reveal functional differences between different innervation styles. FS cell soma-targeting synapses initiate a strong, global inhibition, those on shafts inhibit more restricted dendritic zones, while synapses on spines may mediate a strictly local veto. Thus, FS cell synapses of different sizes and sites provide functionally diverse forms of pyramidal cell inhibition.

The gastrointestinal tract is continuously exposed to a variety of chemicals and commensal bacteria. Recent studies have shown that changes in gut microbial populations caused by chlorine or other chemicals in the drinking water influence the development of human colorectal cancer, although the mechanism of tumorigenesis in the gut epithelium is obfuscated by the diversity of microflora and complexity of the tumor microenvironment. In this regard, mouse models that recapitulate human colorectal cancer are an invaluable tool. In this study, we used two conditional adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc) knockout mouse models to investigate the effect of chlorinated water on tumorigenesis in the digestive tract. Mice with colon-specific carcinoma--caused by either chromosomal (CDX2P 9.5-NLS Cre;Apc(+/flox), abbreviated to CPC;Apc) or microsatellite (CDX2P9.5-G19Cre;Apc(flox/flox) and CDX2P9.5-G22Cre;Apc(flox/flox)) instability, respectively--were administered chlorinated (10.0 mg/L chlorine) or tap (0.7 mg/L chlorine) water and evaluated for colon polyp formation. In CPC;Apc mice given chlorinated drinking water, tumors tended to develop in the colon, whereas in those that drank tap water, tumors were mostly observed in the small intestine. There was no difference in the rate of tumor formation of CDX2P9.5-G19Cre;Apc(flox/flox) and CDX2P9.5-G22Cre;Apc(flox/flox) mice consuming chlorinated as compared to tap water, suggesting that microsatellite instability in the Apc gene does not significantly affect tumorigenesis. Chlorinated water altered the enteric environment by reducing the fecal populations of the obligatory anaerobes Clostridium perfringens and C. difficile, as well as species belonging to the Atopobium cluster, including Enterobacteriaceae and Staphylococcus sp., which was associated with colon tumorigenesis in CPC;Apc mice. These results suggest that differences in tumorigenesis among CPC;Apc mice consuming chlorinated versus tap water may be due to differences in gastrointestinal commensal populations.

A systematic method to obtain the freezing characteristics and the amounts of frost heave in the soils around a buried oil pipeline in island talik permafrost region is presented on the basis of the simulation of soil temperature fields and a classic segregated potential frost heave model. The finite thermal effect domain and the equivalent heat capacity method were adopted to analyze the heat transfer process with phase change. The calculation parameters were derived from the China-Russia Crude Oil Pipeline engineering. The developments of the annual maximum freezing circles and frost penetrations emerging in typical years within the pipeline operation life cycle under different oil temperature, different thickness of thermal insulation layer, and different water content of soils were investigated. The maximum frost heaves in four typical sections of island talik were predicted. The results can be used to further mechanical calculation and can provide references for risk evaluation and site management of the buried pipelines in island talik permafrost regions.

Both experimental and numerical studies are simultaneously performed for fully developed water and surfactant solution channel flow. The comparison aims at the surfactant solution flow in experiment with mass concentration of 25 ppm at Re = 1000 and Giesekus model with Weissenberg numbers of 10 and 40 at Re τ = 150. Big differences are found between the experimental and DNS results by comparing the distributions of velocity fluctuations, Reynolds shear stress, and so on. Although large drag reduction appears in DNS, Giesekus model has some limitations in describing the fluid characteristics and viscoelasticity of the surfactant solution.

Direct numerical simulations of turbulent viscoelastic fluid flows in a channel with wall-mounted plates were performed to investigate the influence of viscoelasticity on turbulent structures and the mean flow around the plate. The constitutive equation follows the Giesekus model, valid for polymer or surfactant solutions, which are generally capable of reducing the turbulent frictional drag in a smooth channel. We found that turbulent eddies just behind the plates in viscoelastic fluid decreased in number and in magnitude, but their size increased. Three pairs of organized longitudinal vortices were observed downstream of the plates in both Newtonian and viscoelastic fluids: two vortex pairs were behind the plates and the other one with the longest length was in a plate-free area. In the viscoelastic fluid, the latter vortex pair in the plate-free area was maintained and reached the downstream rib, but its swirling strength was weakened and the local skin-friction drag near the vortex was much weaker than those in the Newtonian flow. The mean flow and small spanwise eddies were influenced by the additional fluid force due to the viscoelasticity and, moreover, the spanwise component of the fluid elastic force may also play a role in the suppression of fluid vortical motions behind the plates.

A low-Reynolds-number k-ε model applicable for viscoelastic fluid was proposed to predict the frictional-drag reduction and the turbulence modification in a wall-bounded turbulent flow. In this model, an additional damping function was introduced into the model of eddy viscosity, while the treatment of the turbulent kinetic energy (k) and its dissipation rate (ε) is an extension of the model for Newtonian fluids. For constructing the damping function, we considered the influence of viscoelasticity on the turbulent eddy motion and its dissipative scale and investigated the frequency response for the constitutive equation based on the Giesekus fluid model. Assessment of the proposed model’s performance in several rheological conditions for drag-reduced turbulent channel flows demonstrated good agreement with DNS (direct numerical simulation) data.

Turbulent drag reduction by additives is an effective approach to save energy in wall turbulence. Improvement of this approach requires a better understanding of the interactions between turbulence and additives including the complex changes in turbulence under various conditions of additives. In this paper we review some recent progress in the investigations of drag reduction in wall turbulence with inhomogeneous polymer solutions via slot-injection and wall-blowing methods. The turbulent statistics characteristics and coherent structures modified by the inhomogeneous polymer additives and the polymer diffusion characteristics in the turbulent boundary layer (TBL) flow and channel flow are discussed in terms of previous experimental and numerical studies. This review also presents a discussion of current limitations and future directions in these areas. Readers may find it helpful in understanding the phenomenon of turbulent drag reduction by inhomogeneous polymer additives and in developing practical applications.

Turbulent Taylor-vortex flows over regularly spaced square ribs mounted on a rotating inner cylinder surface were investigated using direct numerical simulations (DNSs) for a Reynolds number of 3200 (based on the inner-wall velocity and the gap width between two cylinders) in an apparatus with an inner-to-outer radius ratio of 0.617, while varying the streamwise interval of the ribs. We examined the flow and pressure fields around each rib, focusing on the recirculation zone, the frictional drag coefficient, and the pressure (form) drag. Our results for the Taylor-Couette flows were compared to DNS for plane Poiseuille flows over ribbed surfaces performed by Leonardi et al. (2003). We determined the qualitative consistency between them with respect to the roughness effect, which depends significantly on the rib interval, but the rate of increase in the flow resistance was remarkably dampened by roughness in the present flows. Taylor vortices remaining over roughened cylinder surfaces were found to induce quick pressure recovery behind each rib, leading to less pressure drag and an enhanced backflow in the recirculation zone.

Dilute surfactant solution of 25 ppm in the two-dimensional channel is investigated experimentally compared with water flow. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) system is used to take 2D velocity frames in the streamwise and wall-normal plane. Based on the frames of instantaneous vectors and statistical results, the phenomenon of zero Reynolds shear stress appearing in the drag-reducing flow is discussed. It is found that 25 ppm CTAC solution exhibits the highest drag reduction at Re = 25000 and loses drag reduction completely at Re = 40000. When drag reduction lies in the highest, Reynolds shear stress disappears and reaches zero although the RMS of the velocity fluctuations is not zero. By the categorization in four quadrants, the fluctuations of 25 ppm CTAC solution are distributed in all four quadrants equally at Re = 25000, which indicates that turnaround transportation happens in drag-reducing flow besides Reynolds shear stress transportation. Moreover, the contour distribution of streamwise velocity and the fluctuations suggests that turbulence transportation is depressed in drag-reducing flow. The viscoelasticity is possible to decrease the turbulence transportation and cause the turnaround transportation.

The spatial structure of a drag-reducing channel flow with surfactant additives in a two-dimensional channel was investigated experimentally. We carried out detailed measurements of the instantaneous velocity in the streamwise wall-normal plane and streamwise spanwise plane by using particle image velocimetry (PIV). The surfactant used in this experiment is a kind of cationic surfactant CTAC. The weight concentrations of the CTAC solution were 25 and 40 ppm on the flow. We considered the effects of Reynolds number ranging from 10000 to 25000 and the weight concentration of CTAC. The results of this paper showed that in the drag-reducing flow, there appeared an area where the root mean square of streamwise velocity fluctuation and the vorticity fluctuation sharply decreased. This indicated that two layers with different turbulent structure coexisted on the boundary of this area. Moreover, these layers had characteristic flow structures, as confirmed by observation of the instantaneous vorticity fluctuation map.

Quantitative analysis of anatomical synaptic connectivity in microcircuits depends upon accurate 3-dimentional reconstructions of synaptic ultrastructure using electron microscopy of serial ultrathin sections. Here we address two pitfalls in current methodology that lead to inaccurate reconstructions and compromise conclusions drawn from the data. The first pitfall is inaccurate determination of ultrathin section thickness, which negatively affects the three-dimensional shape of reconstructions and therefore impairs quantitative measurement of synaptic structures. Secondly, current methodology significantly underestimates the number of synaptic junctions, with only two-thirds or less of genuine synaptic contacts being identified in dendrites that radiate within the plane of section. Here we propose a new methodology utilizing precise optical measurements of section thickness and successive observations of synaptic elements across serial ultrathin sections that corrects for these limitations to allow accurate 3-dimentional reconstruction of synaptic ultrastructure. We use this methodology to reveal that parvalbumin-expressing cortical interneurons have a much higher synaptic density than previously shown. This result suggests that this technique will be useful for re-examining synaptic connectivity of other cell types.

In the neocortex, both layer 2/3 and layer 5 contain corticocortical pyramidal cells projecting to other cortices. We previously found that among L5 pyramidal cells of the secondary motor cortex (M2), not only intratelencephalic projection cells but also pyramidal tract cells innervate ipsilateral cortices and that the two subtypes are different in corticocortical projection diversity and axonal laminar distributions. Layer 2/3 houses intratelencephalically projecting pyramidal cells that also innervate multiple ipsilateral and contralateral cortices. However, it remained unclear whether layer 2/3 pyramidal cells can be divided into projection subtypes each with distinct innervation to specific targets. In the present study we show that layer 2 pyramidal cells are organized into subcircuits on the basis of corticocortical projection targets. Layer 2 corticocortical cells of the same projection subtype were monosynaptically connected. Between the contralaterally and ipsilaterally projecting corticocortical cells, the monosynaptic connection was more common from the former to the latter. We also found that ipsilaterally and contralaterally projecting corticocortical cell subtypes differed in their morphological and physiological characteristics. Our results suggest that layer 2 transfers separate outputs from M2 to individual cortices and that its subcircuits are hierarchically organized to form the discrete corticocortical outputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cortex contains multiple neuron types with specific connectivity and functions. Recent progress has provided a better understanding of the interactions of these neuron types as well as their output organization particularly for the frontal cortex, with implications for the circuit mechanisms underlying cortical oscillations that have cognitive functions. Layer 5 pyramidal cells (PCs) in the frontal cortex comprise two major subtypes: crossed-corticostriatal (CCS) and corticopontine (CPn) cells. Functionally, CCS and CPn cells exhibit similar phase-dependent firing during gamma waves but participate in two distinct subnetworks that are linked unidirectionally from CCS to CPn cells. GABAergic parvalbumin-expressing fast-spiking (PV-FS) cells, necessary for gamma oscillation, innervate PCs, with stronger and global inhibition to somata and weaker and localized inhibitions to dendritic shafts/spines. While PV-FS cells form reciprocal connections with both CCS and CPn cells, the excitation from CPn to PV-FS cells exhibits short-term synaptic dynamics conducive for oscillation induction. The electrical coupling between PV-FS cells facilitates spike synchronization among PV-FS cells receiving common excitatory inputs from local PCs and inhibits other PV-FS cells via electrically communicated spike afterhyperpolarizations. These connectivity characteristics can promote synchronous firing in the local networks of CPn cells and firing of some CCS cells by anode-break excitation. Thus subsets of L5 CCS and CPn cells within different levels of connection hierarchy exhibit coordinated activity via their common connections with PV-FS cells, and the resulting PC output drives diverse neuronal targets in cortical layer 1 and the striatum with specific temporal precision, expanding the computational power of the cortical network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forced convective heat transfer of turbulent magnetic fluid flow is remarkably suppressed by applying magnetic field. Detailed investigation of this suppression of turbulent heat transfer of magnetic fluid was carried out experimentally in this study. The result shows that the suppression of heat transfer becomes strong by applying stronger magnetic field, but is saturated at a certain strength of magnetic field. This suppression depends on not only magnetic field intensity but also flow condition. For generalization of the suppressed heat transfer characteristics of turbulent magnetic fluid flow by applying magnetic field, we proposed Mh number which is defined by Re divided by a root of magnetic field intensity normalized by saturated magnetization of magnetic fluid. It is found that suppressed heat transfer of magnetic fluid almost linearly increases with increasing Mh number. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During cortical network activity, recurrent synaptic excitation among pyramidal neurons is approximately balanced by synaptic inhibition, which is provided by a vast diversity of inhibitory interneurons. The relative contributions of different interneuron subtypes to inhibitory tone during cortical network activity is not well-understood. We previously showed that many of the major interneuron subtypes in mouse barrel cortex are highly active during Up states (Neske et al., 2015); while fast-spiking (FS), parvalbumin (PV)- positive cells were the most active interneuron subtype, many non-fast-spiking (NFS), PV-negative interneurons were as active or more active than neighboring pyramidal cells. This suggests that the NFS cells could play a role in maintaining or modulating Up states. Here, using optogenetic techniques, we further dissected the functional roles during Up states of two major NFS, PV-negative interneuron subtypes: somatostatin (SOM)- positive cells and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)-positive cells. We found that while pyramidal cell excitability during Up states significantly increased when SOM cells were optogenetically silenced, VIP cells did not influence pyramidal cell excitability either upon optogenetic silencing or activation. VIP cells failed to contribute to Up states despite their ability to inhibit SOM cells strongly. We suggest that the contribution of VIP cells to the excitability of pyramidal cells may vary with cortical state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The most typical and well known inhibitory action in the cortical microcircuit is a strong inhibition on the target neuron by axo-somatic synapses. However, it has become clear that synaptic inhibition in the cortex is much more diverse and complicated. Firstly, at least ten or more inhibitory non-pyramidal cell subtypes engage in diverse inhibitory functions to produce the elaborate activity characteristic of the different cortical states. Each distinct non-pyramidal cell subtype has its own independent inhibitory function. Secondly, the inhibitory synapses innervate different neuronal domains, such as axons, spines, dendrites and soma, and their inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) size is not uniform. Thus, cortical inhibition is highly complex, with a wide variety of anatomical and physiological modes. Moreover, the functional significance of the various inhibitory synapse innervation styles and their unique structural dynamic behaviors differ from those of excitatory synapses. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the inhibitory mechanisms of the cortical microcircuit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Slow-wave oscillations, the predominant brain rhythm during sleep, are composed of Up/Down cycles. Depolarizing Up-states involve activity in layer 5 (L5) of the neocortex, but it is unknown how diverse subtypes of neurons within L5 participate in generating and maintaining Up-states. Here we compare the in vivo firing patterns of corticopontine (CPn) pyramidal cells, crossed-corticostriatal (CCS) pyramidal cells, and fast-spiking (FS) GABAergic neurons in the rat frontal cortex, with those of thalamocortical neurons during Up/ Down cycles in the anesthetized condition. During the transition from Down- to Up-states, increased activity in these neurons was highly temporally structured, with spiking occurring first in thalamocortical neurons, followed by cortical FS cells, CCS cells, and, finally, CPn cells. Activity in some FS, CCS, andCPnneurons occurred in phase with Up-nestedgammarhythms, with FS neurons showing phase delay relative to pyramidal neurons. These results suggest that thalamic and cortical pyramidal neurons are activated in a specific temporal sequence during Up/Down cycles, but cortical pyramidal cells are activated at a similar gamma phase. In addition to Up-state firing specificity, CCS and CPn cells exhibited differences in activity during cortical desynchronization, further indicating projection- and state-dependent information processing within L5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cortical fast-spiking (FS) interneurons are electrically interconnected through gap junctions and form dendritic net structures extending over different functional columns. Here we investigated how pyramidal cells regulate FS cell network activity. Using paired recordings and glutamate puff stimulations, we found that FS cell pairs connected by electrical synapses shared common inputs from surrounding pyramidal cells more frequently than those unconnected or connected only by chemical synapses. Experimental and simulation results suggest that activity spread evoked by common inputs to electrically connected FS cells depends on network state. When cells were in the depolarized state, common inputs to electrically connected cells enhanced spike induction and induced inhibitory effects in surrounding FS cells. By contrast, in the hyperpolarized state, either sub- or suprathreshold inputs produced depolarizing potentials in nearby cells. Our results suggest that globally connected FS cell networks are locally regulated by pyramidal cells in an electrical connection- and network state-dependent manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corticostriatal pyramidal cells are heterogeneous in the frontal cortex. Here, we show that subpopulations of corticostriatal neurons in the rat frontal cortex are selectively connected with each other based on their subcortical targets. Using paired recordings of retrogradely labeled cells, we investigated the synaptic connectivity between two projection cell types: those projecting to the pons [corticopontine (CPn) cell], often with collaterals to the striatum, and those projecting to both sides of the striatum but not to the pons [crossed corticostriatal (CCS) cell]. The two types were morphologically differentiated in regard to their apical tufts. The dendritic morphologies of CCS cells were correlated with their somatic depth within the cortex. CCS cells had reciprocal synaptic connections with each other and also provided synaptic input to CPn cells. However, connections from CPn to CCS cells were rarely found, even in pairs showing CCS to CPn connectivity. Additionally, CCS cells preferentially innervated the basal dendrites of other CCS cells but made contacts onto both the basal and apical dendrites of CPn cells. The amplitude of synaptic responses was to some extent correlated with the contact site number. Ratios of the EPSC amplitude to the contact number tended to be larger in the CCS to CCS connection. Therefore, our data demonstrate that these two types of corticostriatal cells distinct in their dendritic morphologies show directional and domain-dependent preferences in their synaptic connectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction to the journal is presented in which the editor discusses the diversity of innovative neural circuit research in Japan.

A discrete-element model (spring-dumbbell model) is used to investigate the mechanism of drag-reduction by adding polymer in a turbulent channel flow of Newtonian fluid by Direct Numerical Simulations (DNSs). By using this model, the spatial concentration of the polymer can be obtained numerically. In this paper, the effect of the spring coefficient on the drag-reduction is studied in detail. The quantitative relations between the drag-reduction rate and viscoelastic and Reynolds shear stress, etc., are obtained. Discussions are performed to clarify the relation between the turbulent structure of the polymer drag-reducing flow and the spring coefficient of the discrete-element model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well known that turbulent drag can be reduced effectively by adding a small amount of water-soluble polymer or surfactant to a liquid flow at high Reynolds number. However, the heat transfer of drag-reducing flow is deteriorated, thought to be approximately in accordance with the drag reduction because of the similarity of momentum and heat transfer. In this study, turbulent heat transfer of drag-reducing in a channel flow with DNS was carried out to investigate the dissimilarity behaviour between heat transfer and friction of a viscoelastic drag-reducing flow by surfactant additives. The effect of rheological parameters was carefully investigated to find the conditions at which the dissimilarity between heat and mass appears. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses In mammalian neocortex , learning triggers the formation and turnover of new postsynaptic spines on pyramidal cell dendrites. However, the biological principles of spine reorganization during learning remain elusive because the identity of their presynaptic neuronal partners is unknown. Here, we show that two presynaptic neural circuits supervise distinct programs of spine dynamics to execute learning.

Spatial polymer diffusion in the drag-reduced turbulent channel flow of an inhomogeneous polymer solution was investigated by simultaneously measuring velocity and concentration fields using particle imaging velocimetry and planar laser-induced fluorescence techniques. The polymer solution was dosed into the turbulent channel flow from the surface of one-side of the channel wall. The Reynolds number (based on channel height, bulk velocity and solvent viscosity) was set as 4.0 x 104 and the weight concentrations of dosed polymer solution were set to 25, 50 and 100 ppm. The measurements were obtained in the streamwise wall-normal (x-y) plane at three streamwise positions along the dosing wall. The detailed statistical analyses consisting of concentration distribution, turbulence modification, turbulent mass flux, and eddy diffusivities of momentum and of mass are presented. The results show that the polymer diffusion, which has a close relationship with the local polymer concentration and drag reduction in the drag-reduced turbulent channel flow, is suppressed due to the inhibited turbulence other than the diffusion of passive scalar in ordinary turbulence. Two characteristic regions exist in the near-wall region according to the diffusion characteristics and altered motions in the wall-normal direction. The wall-normal turbulent fluxes that control the transport of mass are reduced significantly in the near-wall region for the drag-reduced flow when compared with the case of dosing water. With the increase of local polymer concentration in the "effective position", the corresponding drag reduction rate (DR) increases. The turbulent Schmidt number (ScT), which represents the relative intensities of the eddy diffusivities of momentum and of mass, is also found to increase with increasing DR. The mean value of ScT for the drag-reduced flow can rise to 2.9, while it is 1.2 for the case of dosing water in the present measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]