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The electrocatalytic carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) reduction reaction (CO 2 RR) into hydrocarbons is a promising approach for greenhouse gas mitigation, but many details of this dynamic reaction remain elusive. Here, time-resolved surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TR-SERS) is employed to successfully monitor the dynamics of CO 2 RR intermediates and Cu surfaces with sub-second time resolution. Anodic treatment at 1.55 V vs. RHE and subsequent surface oxide reduction (below -0.4 V vs. RHE) induced roughening of the Cu electrode surface, which resulted in hotspots for TR-SERS, enhanced time resolution (down to ≈0.7 s) and fourfold improved CO 2 RR efficiency toward ethylene. With TR-SERS, the initial restructuring of the Cu surface was followed (<7 s), after which a stable surface surrounded by increased local alkalinity was formed. Our measurements revealed that a highly dynamic CO intermediate, with a characteristic vibration below 2060 cm -1 , is related to C-C coupling and ethylene production (-0.9 V vs. RHE), whereas lower cathodic bias (-0.7 V vs. RHE) resulted in gaseous CO production from isolated and static CO surface species with a distinct vibration at 2092 cm -1 ., (© 2021 The Authors. Angewandte Chemie International Edition published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Nickel-molybdenum (Ni-Mo) alloys are well studied as highly effective electrocatalyst cathodes for water splitting. Understanding deactivation pathways is a key to improving the performance of these catalysts. In this study, in situ characterization by UV/Vis spectroscopy and AFM of the morphology and Mo leaching of an Ni-Mo electrocatalyst was performed with the goal of understanding the stability and related Mo leaching mechanism. Switching the potential towards higher overpotentials results in a nonlinear change in Mo leaching. Multiple processes are proposed to take place, such as a decrease in the extent of Mo oxidation at the cathode induced by more strongly reducing potentials, while simultaneously the increase in the local pH at the cathode due to the hydrogen evolution reaction causes more Mo leaching. The change in capacitance of these materials depends strongly on the change in surface composition and not only on the surface area. In situ UV/Vis spectroscopy showed that Mo leaching is a continuous process over the course of 4 h of operation. Finally, the material was deposited on different substrates and the effect on Ni-Mo stability was studied. The substrate has a significant, albeit complex, influence on the stability and activity of Ni-Mo cathodes. In terms of stability in 1 m KOH, Ni-Mo was found to be best deposited on stainless steel substrates operated at low overpotentials, on which it showed nearly no change in capacitance and exhibited low Mo leaching., (© 2020 The Authors. Published by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.)

Non-noble metal electro-catalysts for water splitting are highly desired when we are moving towards a society where green electrons are becoming abundantly available, offering clear prospects to make our society more sustainable. In this work, Ni-Fe-S is reported as a high performing anode material for the water splitting reaction, operating at low overpotentials and showing high apparent stability. Furthermore, Ni-Mo electrodes are developed on metallic foam substrates and optimized in terms of their performance. The Ni-Fe-S material as anode, combined and integrated with Ni-Mo as cathode in a cell configuration, splits water at 10 mA cm -2 and a potential of 1.55 V. Similar to previous reports, we confirm that Mo leaches from Ni-Mo/Ni foam electrodes. Cycling tests and ICP-AES measurements show that the stability of Ni-Fe-S is apparent, and that in reality S is leaching from the material as was already suggested in literature. We expand on this knowledge and show that the leaching of S is dependent on both pH and the cation used during electrocatalysis. Furthermore, we find that applying an oxidative potential is in truth stabilizing towards S and that the alkalinity causes leaching. S was furthermore mobile and found to segregate towards the surface. Finally, using too low pH values (11 and lower) result in the passivating hydroxide metal layers being destroyed and the Ni-Fe-S dissolving completely., (© 2020 The Authors. Published by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.)

The synthesis and characterization of highly stable and conductive F:SnO 2 (FTO) nanopyramid arrays are investigated, and their use as scaffolds for water splitting is demonstrated. Current densities during the oxygen evolution reaction with a NiFeO x catalyst at 2 V vs reversible hydrogen electrode were increased 5-fold when substituting commercial FTO (TEC 15) by nanostructured FTO scaffolds. In addition, thin α-Fe 2 O 3 films (∼50 nm thick) were employed as a proof of concept to show the effect of our nanostructured scaffolds during photoelectrochemical water splitting. Double-layer capacitance measurements showed a drastic increase of the relative electrochemically active surface area for the nanostructured samples, in agreement with the observed photocurrent enhancement, whereas UV-vis spectroscopy indicates full absorption of visible light at wavelengths below 600 nm.

Water electrolysis to form hydrogen as a solar fuel requires highly effective catalysts. In this work, theoretical and experimental studies are performed on the activity and stability of Ni-Mo cathodes for this reaction. Density functional theory studies show various Ni-Mo facets to be active for the hydrogen evolution reaction, Ni segregation to be thermodynamically favorable, and Mo vacancy formation to be favorable even without an applied potential. Electrolyte effects on the long-term stability of Ni-Mo cathodes are determined. Ni-Mo is compared before and after up to 100 h of continuous operation. It is shown that Ni-Mo is unstable in alkaline media, owing to Mo leaching in the form of MoO 4 2- , ultimately leading to a decrease in absolute overpotential. It is found that the electrolyte, the alkali cations, and the pH all influence Mo leaching. Changing the cation in the electrolyte from Li to Na to K influences the surface segregation of Mo and pushes the reaction towards Mo dissolution. Decreasing the pH decreases the OH - concentration and in this manner inhibits Mo leaching. Of the electrolytes studied, in terms of stability, the best to use is LiOH at pH 13. Thus, a mechanism for Mo leaching is presented alongside ways to influence the stability and make the Ni-Mo material more viable for renewable energy storage in chemical bonds., (© 2019 The Authors. Published by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.)

Photocathodes for hydrogen evolution from water were made by electrodeposition of Ni-Mo layers on NiFe 2 O 4 substrates, deposited by spin coating on F:SnO 2 -glass. Analysis confirmed the formation of two separate layers, without significant reduction of NiFe 2 O 4 . Bare NiFe 2 O 4 was found to be unstable under alkaline conditions during (photo)electrochemistry. To improve the stability significantly, the deposition of a bifunctional Ni-Mo layer through a facile electrodeposition process was performed and the composite electrodes showed stable operation for at least 1 h. Moreover, photocurrents up to -2.1 mA cm -2 at -0.3 V vs. RHE were obtained for Ni-Mo/NiFe 2 O 4 under ambient conditions, showing that the new combination functions as both a stabilizing and catalytic layer for the photoelectrochemical evolution of hydrogen. The photoelectrochemical response of these composite electrodes decreased with increasing NiFe 2 O 4 layer thickness. Transient absorption spectroscopy showed that the lifetime of excited states is short and on the ns timescale. An increase in lifetime was observed for NiFe 2 O 4 of large layer thickness, likely explained by decreasing the defect density in the primary layer(s), as a result of repetitive annealing at elevated temperature. The photoelectrochemical and transient absorption spectroscopy results indicated that a short charge carrier lifetime limits the performance of Ni-Mo/NiFe 2 O 4 photocathodes., (© 2018 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Hematite (α-Fe2O3) has been extensively studied as a promising candidate for photoelectrochemical water splitting; however its overall efficiency is still relatively low. Doping is believed to be efficient in enhancing the photoactivity, while direct evidence for the promoted charge carrier dynamics is very limited. Herein, transient absorption spectroscopy was used to directly investigate the yield and decay dynamics of the photogenerated holes in Sn and/or Ti doped α-Fe2O3. Sn or Ti doping was observed to have different origins to the enhanced water oxidation photocurrent: Sn doping retarded the electron-hole recombination, while Ti doping mainly increased the photogenerated charge carrier density. Our results also demonstrated that co-doping may combine both advantages to enhance the overall photoactivity of α-Fe2O3.