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Abstract Background Living alone has increased globally and especially in Finland where 45% of all households are single occupancy. Epidemiological research has found that living alone a risk factor for a wide range of adversities related to quality of life but the rapidly-changing demographics of people living alone calls for a more detailed investigation of their subjective health status. Methods Using a cross-sectional survey sent for a random sample of Finnish residents in single-person households (n = 884), we explored with latent class analysis whether the respondents form different health profiles based on the three health dimensions defined by the World Health Organization: physical, social, and mental well-being. The identified groups were then compared in terms of demographic characteristics with the χ2 test and quality of life using linear regression models. Sensitivity analyses were run using more refined, manual 3-step BCH method. Results Four distinct health profiles were found: Languishing (4%), Managing (35%), Healthy (30%), and Flourishing (31%). The groups differed in most socio-demographic aspects such as marital and employment status, but not in terms of geographic location or gender (apart from group Languishing that contained more men). Controlling for these socio-demographic differences, all groups showed different average levels of perceived quality of life to the expected direction. Conclusions Our findings suggest that people living alone are indeed a very heterogeneous group in terms of subjective health. Instead of seeing living alone as a mere risk for low quality of life, concept of living alone should be understood more broadly both in public discussion and scientific research.

Background: Evidence suggests that living near blue spaces such as the coast, lakes and rivers may be good for health and wellbeing. Although greater levels of physical activity (PA) may be a potential mechanism, we know little about the types of PA that might account for this. Objectives: To explore the mediating role of: a) ‘watersports’ (e.g. sailing/canoeing); b) ‘on-land outdoor PA’ in natural/mixed settings (e.g. walking/running/cycling); and, c) ‘indoor/other PA’ (e.g. gym/squash) in the relationships between residential blue space availability and health outcomes. Methods: Using data from the Health Survey for England (n = 21,097), we constructed a path model to explore whether weekly volumes of each PA type mediate any of the relationships between residential blue space availability (coastal proximity and presence of freshwater) and self-reported general and mental health, controlling for green space density and a range of socio-economic factors at the individual- and area-level. Results: Supporting predictions, living nearer the coast was associated with better self-reported general and mental health and this was partially mediated by on-land outdoor PA (primarily walking). Watersports were more common among those living within 5kms of the coast, but did not mediate associations between coastal proximity and health. Presence of freshwater in the neighbourhood was associated with better mental health, but this effect was not mediated by PA. Conclusions: Although nearby blue spaces offer potentially easier access to watersports, relatively few individuals in England engage in them and thus they do not account for positive population health associations. Rather, the benefits to health from coastal living seem, at least in part, due to participation in land-based outdoor activities (especially walking). Further research is needed to explore the mechanisms behind the relationship between freshwater presence and mental health. Keywords: Physical activity, General health, GHQ-12, Water, Restoration, Green exercise

Although health issues are more common in people living alone than in those living with someone, research on the service use of people living alone has focused on older age groups. Based on large Finnish cross-sectional health survey (FinHealth 2017, n = 4686), we examined the difference in the use and assessment of health services between those living alone and those living with someone, and whether some sub-groups within those living alone use or perceive the use of health care services differently to those living with someone. The adjusted proportions, based on logistic regression models controlling for demographic variables and perceived health and mental health, showed that those living alone had seen a doctor in the past year less often (65.5%) than those not living alone (71.9%). People living alone had also less often had a health examination in the past 5 years (72.4%) than those not living alone (79.2%), and this proportion was particularly low within people living alone with high levels of depressive symptoms (59.0%) compared to lower levels (75.0%). Conclusively, among people living alone, those who suffer from depressive symptoms might be a potential group that does not receive the same levels of preventive care than others.