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INTRODUCTION Surveys of British and American motorists indicate that aggressive driving is one of the driver's greatest concerns as far as traffic safety is involved (AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, […], The goal of this study was to determine if traffic signals that are synchronized along a route are associated with fewer red-light violations than traffic signals that are not synchronized. A total 5600 cycles of traffic signals at 12 intersections along 2 major urban arteries were observed. Synchronized intersections were effective in reducing the likelihood of red-light running (RLR) by (a) providing fewer opportunities than nonsynchronized intersections for RLR and (b) having a lower rate of RLR relative to the number of opportunities. After adjustment for the number of opportunities, the odds of entering the intersections in red in synchronized intersections were nearly 1/7 the odds of RLR in nonsynchronized intersections. Congestion reduced the effectiveness of synchronized intersections relative to nonsynchronized intersections. Male drivers were slightly more likely to run red lights than female drivers, and the effects of synchronization were fairly constant across age, gender, and the presence or absence of passengers. Actual or potential applications of this research involve signal synchronization to reduce aggressive driving in general and RLR in particular.

INTRODUCTION Intelligent transportation systems (ITSs) are increasingly becoming technically feasible and economically affordable (Lee, 1997; Walker, Stanton, & Young, 2001). Unlike in-vehicle safety systems such as air bags and safety […], An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of an in-vehicle collision avoidance warning system (IVCAWS) on driver performance. A driving simulator was driven by 135 licensed drivers. Of these, 120 received alerts from the IVCAWS when their headway to a lead car was less than 2 s, and the other 15 (the control group) received no alerts. Drivers received varied alert interfaces: auditory, visual, and multimodal. The system had varied levels of reliability, determined by both false alarm rate and failure of the IVCAWS to alert to short headway. Results indicated that the IVCAWS led to safer (longer) headway maintenance. High false alarm rates induced drivers to slow down unnecessarily; large numbers of missed alerts did not have any significant impact on drivers. Driver acceptance of the system was mixed. Interface played a role in driver reliance on the system, with the multimodal interfaces generating least reliance. Actual or potential applications of this research include IVCAWS interface selection for greater system efficacy and user acceptance and the advisability of implementation, even of imperfect systems, for drivers who seek to maintain a safer headway.

This editorial is both an introduction to the papers that make up this special issue (on the Relationship between Crash Causation, Countermeasures, and Policy) and an attempt at drawing conclusions. To assist the reader, we begin with a brief description of the subject matter of each paper. As expected, the authors tackle different aspects of this general topic and often differ in their conclusions. We follow up by asking: Are in-depth crash causation studies helpful? Can the need for understanding causation be defended? Does the Swiss Cheese Metaphor require revision? What are the building blocks on which the crash injury prevention programs rest? Can one really avoid comparing costs and benefits? These are some of the issues we raise and discuss. We end by offering for consideration a realistic model to link causes, countermeasures, policy, and responsibility for public safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION Technology currently allows for the development of more sophisticated automated systems in which a computer can potentially make decisions previously reserved for humans. In many tasks it will be […], Target acquisition tasks in natural environments are often augmented by cuing systems that advise human observers during the decision process. With present technological limitations, cuing systems are imperfect, so the question arises whether cuing aids should be implemented under all conditions. We examined target acquisition performance under different levels of task complexity and cuing system reliability. We introduce here two new methods to help define observer behavior trends in cued target acquisition: a quantitative measure of observer search behavior in a temporal sense and a measure of the extent of observer reliance on the cue. We found that observer reliance on the cue correlated with task difficulty and the perceived reliability of the cue. Cuing was generally helpful in complex tasks, whereas cuing reduced performance in easy tasks. Consequently, cuing systems should be implemented only when the task is difficult enough to warrant the intrusion of a cue into the task. Actual or potential applications of this research include the design and implementation of imperfect automated aids dealing with augmented reality.

INTRODUCTION The ability of people to remain alert in a continuous manner for prolonged durations is severely limited, and consequently momentary lapses in attention and delayed recognition of hazards have […], The effectiveness of a headway measuring and recording device was evaluated in terms of its ability to increase drivers' car-following distance. Forty-three drivers first drove for approximately 3 weeks without headway feedback and then for approximately 3 more weeks with immediate time headway (THW) feedback. Whenever the THW decreased to 1.2 s or less a red warning light came on, and whenever the THW decreased further to 0.8 s or less a buzzer was also sounded. The results showed that prior to receiving THW information, drivers drove at shorter headways than after they received that information. The effect of the feedback was to reduce the time spent in short headways (≤0.8 s) by approximately 25% (from 20% to 15% of the time) and to increase the time spent in safer longer headways (>1.2 s) by approximately 20% (from 57% to 65% of the time). The effect was similar for younger and older drivers, for male and female drivers, for urban and highway speeds, and for daytime and nighttime dri ving. An immediate application of these findings is to install headway feedback displays to drivers so that they may maintain safer headway distances than they do currently.

INTRODUCTION In the United States, rear-end collisions represent approximately 30% of all car crashes on public roads (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1999). Two major causes of such accidents are […], Many new in-vehicle systems focus on accident prevention by facilitating the driving task. One such driving aid is an in-vehicle collision avoidance warning system (IVCAWS), used to alert the driver to an impending collision. Our study evaluated the effects of an imperfect IVCAWS both on driver headway maintenance and on driver behavior in response to warning system errors. Our results showed that drivers tend to overestimate their headway and consequently drive with short and potentially dangerous headways, and that IVCAWSs are a useful tool for educating drivers to estimate headway more accurately. Moreover, our study showed that after a relatively short exposure to the system, drivers were able to maintain longer and safer headways for at least six months. The practical implications of these results are that the use of an IVCAWS should be considered for inclusion in driver education and training programs.

INTRODUCTION In a classic task analysis of the driving task, McKnight and Adams (1970) identified approximately 1500 tasks that a driver must learn to master in order to accomplish most […], Manual gear shifting is often used as an example of an automated (vs. controlled) process in driving. The present study provided an empirical evaluation of this assumption by evaluating sign detection and recall performance of novice and experienced drivers driving manual shift and automatic transmission cars in a downtown area requiring frequent gear shifting. The results showed that manual gear shifting significantly impaired sign detection performance of novice drivers using manual gears compared with novice drivers using an automatic transmission, whereas no such differences existed between the two transmission types for experienced drivers. The results clearly demonstrate that manual gear shifting is a complex psychomotor skill that is not easily (or quickly) automated and that until it becomes automated, it is an attention-demanding task that may impair other monitoring aspects of driving performance. Actual or potential applications of this research include a reevaluation of the learning process in driving and the need for phased instruction in driving from automatic gears to manual gears.

INTRODUCTION Graphic and alphanumeric displays of quantitative data are a major component in software applications, such as statistical packages, spreadsheets, and decision support systems. Despite the abundance of these displays, […], Two experiments assessed the relative efficiency of line graphs, bar graphs, and tables, applying a multiple-factors approach to study the effects of the type of the required information, the complexity of the data, and the user's familiarity with the display. Information extraction tasks included reading exact values, comparing values, identifying trends, and reading maximum values. Tables led to faster responses for all tasks, and the accuracy for tables was equally high or higher than for graphs. Bar graphs and line graphs differed in their relative efficiency for the different tasks. The complexity of the data also affected the tasks differentially, as did prior familiarity with the display. Performance for most conditions improved with experience. Our findings demonstrate the benefits of a multiple-factors approach to the study of displays. Generalizations about the relative efficiency of displays and computational models of the task performance with displays must consider the various relevant factors if they are to serve as valid design aids.

INTRODUCTION Rear-end collisions account for approximately 25% of all traffic crashes. Although these are typically not the most severe crashes, an analysis reported by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration […], A digital Monte Carlo-type simulation was used to evaluate the effectiveness of an advance brake warning system (ABWS) in reducing rear-end collisions. The ABWS we evaluated activates the brake lights in response to rapid release of the gas pedal, which is characteristic of emergency braking. This reduces the lag in the onset of the brake light by the movement time from the gas pedal to the brake pedal. Using empirical distributions of driver perception reaction time and movement times, it was shown that the ABWS is most effective in preventing collisions on dry roads whenever the headway between vehicles decreases to 1.0 s or less. Vehicle speed was not a significant factor in crash prevention or severity reduction.

The duration estimates of intervals during which a subject had to wait for the computer's response are similar for all the static displays on computers, among individuals. A direct relation exists between the rate of changes and estimates in dynamic computer displays. Faster rates increase the duration estimates and the slow-changing graphic displays have the shortest estimate duration. The individuals prefer epigrams, cumulative graphic displays, and slower blink rates to static displays. Ratings for graphic displays are not affected by the rate of change.

INTRODUCTION In the United States, based on National Accident Sampling System data (NHTSA, 1994), rear-end collisions constitute approximately 25% of all multiple-vehicle accidents. It is therefore not surprising that over […], A field study was conducted to evaluate an advance brake warning (ABW) light activation system. The ABW system detects very rapid accelerator pedal releases (assumed to characterize contingent braking responses) and activates the brake light. If the driver brakes within 1.0 s, then continuation of the brake light is governed by the brake pedal. Otherwise the light goes off. The ABW system was installed on six vehicles driven by their regular users, who were unaware of the system or the study. A total of 61 668 km were driven, in which the drivers braked 95 394 times. The ABW system was activated on 820 of those occasions, providing the following driver a 0.22 s warning. It was determined that the emergency braking activating the ABW system is relatively rare, occurring on average 13.3 times per 1000 km and less than 1% of all brake actions. False alarms (ABW activation without braking) occurred in 23% of all ABW activations but were insignificant (1 in 50) relative to the total number of brief braking actions lasting less than 1.0 s. It therefore appears that the advance brake warning light can provide the intended information without being a safety hazard to following drivers.

Previous attempts to establish the function relating intuitive estimates of correlations from scatterplots to accepted statistical measures have led to unsatisfying results. In this study two experiments dealt with the effects of the statistical training of the viewer and various characteristics of the display on estimates. Statistical knowledge was related to higher estimates of correlations and the use of a wider range of values, but people with and without statistical knowledge were equally affected by the type of dispersion of the point cloud, the mere display of the regression line, and the slope of the regression line. Results indicate that estimates of correlations from scatterplots are partly based on perceptual processes that are influenced by visual properties of the display and are unrelated to the cognitive structures created by formal statistical training.

Center high-mounted stop lamps (CHMSLs) have been standard equipment on passenger cars in the United States since September 1, 1985. This study investigated the potential benefit of extending the CHMSL to heavier vehicles by measuring the savings in brake reaction time. In an experimental field study of over 1000 trials, CHMSLs were installed on a pickup truck, a full truck, a cargo van, and a minivan. The brake reaction times of drivers following these vehicles with and without CHMSLs were measured. Activation of the CHMSL in tandem with the standard brake lights had a small but statistically significant effect on the brake response time of the drivers in following vehicles. No statistically significant differences in CHMSL effect were observed among the four test vehicles. This effect was similar in magnitude to the effect of a CHMSL in a passenger vehicle when measured under the same conditions.