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Volcanic activity in ancient Mesoamerica was decisive for many populations since it influenced daily life and the way of understanding the world. Eruptive events can provoke the total or partial abandonment of the sites, changes in the social organization, and, inclusively, changes in the pedogenesis with alteration of the natural resources. The impact of volcanic activity can be detected easily. However, it can also be “hidden” among the soil and archaeological materials; consequently, its identification and analysis are essential to understanding archaeological stratigraphy. To document the above, this work presents the results obtained at two sites in western Mexico: Cerro del Teúl in Zacatecas (ca. 100-1531 d.C.) and El Pitayo in Michoacán (200- 600 d.C.). In the case of Cerro de Teúl, the construction fills were analyzed in two stratigraphic profiles: the Patio Hundido (PH21) and the Main Plaza (P2M80). In El Pitayo, construction fills and soil horizons were analyzed in two profiles located in a trench with an E-W orientation (East Trench and South Trench). The main objective was to identify the impact of volcanic activity on the archaeological stratigraphy and the transformations of volcanic materials as a consequence of natural and anthropogenic processes, using colorimetric, granulometric, and micromorphological analyses. In addition, the chemical composition (by X-ray fluorescence) and the petrography of the volcanic ash found in the sites were determined and compared with that from surrounding volcanoes. According to the results, the ash observed in Cerro Teúl originated from the Jala eruption of the Ceboruco volcano, dated 990-1020 AD. This eruption did not produce the site abandonment, as the site was rapidly re-occupied, and the ash was left between the construction fills. In the case of El Pitayo, according to archaeological evidence (the ages of the abandoned artifacts and the absence of volcanic glass on the lower floors of the construction), it is probable that the landslide was emitted during the first half of the 6th century and the site contin- ued developing after the event. The geochemical and mineralogical composition of the volcanic materials found in the excavations has an intermediate-acid affinity, which contrasts with the monogenetic volcanism in the area; however, as the material is reworked, it is probable that the original mineralogical composition has been modified by transport and erosional processes, or diluted by the mixture with more acid sources, as evidenced by the domain of volcanic glass with heterogeneous textures and morphologies. Until now, there is a possible source of emission of the volcanic material associated with that found in the “black earth” at the site of El Pitayo, which is the El infiernillo volcanic event, located south of Michoacán and which has a date of 1500- 1370 BC (Mahgoub et al., 2017). However, the “black earth” that covered the site is after this dating, so chronologically it would not correspond to an eruption that occurred during the occupation of the site, but it allows us to associate it as a product of a landslide from Cerro El Arco, since that the geochemical characterization of the volcanic glass shows a very close affinity to this El Infiernillo event.

The soil mantle of the tropical karst landscapes of southern Mexico was a key resource for ancient Maya agriculture and experienced deep transformation due to long-term human impacts under changing environmental conditions. We conducted a comparative analysis of three compound soil toposequences in mountainous (Sierra de Chiapas/Middle Usumacinta Valley, Busiljá, and Chinikihá archaeological sites) and platform (NE Yucatán Peninsula, Yalahau region) karst landscapes to reconstruct general tendencies and regional variations in pedodiversity development and soil–human interactions since the Early Preclassic Period. Toposequence characterization is based on macro- and micromorphological observations, accompanied by a suite of laboratory data. Calcareous upland geoforms of all toposequences have similar soil combinations consisting of shallow Rendzina and deep red clayey Terra Rossa types of profiles. We argue that Rendzinas, now dominant in the upland soil cover, in most cases, are not a product of incipient pedogenesis on limestone; they have developed from the residues of Terra Rossa soils after their advanced erosion. Pedosediments generated by ancient soil erosion have been found in the piedmont and depression positions in the mountainous landscapes of Chiapas, as a result of lateral downslope soil removal, and in the subsurface karstic cavities in the platform of NE Yucatán, indicating vertical “soil piping.” The soils of the lowland domains show contrasting differences between the toposequences: gleyic clay–rich soils and humic alluvial soils prevail in Chinikihá and Busiljá, whereas hydromorphic carbonate soils have formed in Yalahau karstic depressions. These differences in the lowland soil properties led to divergent ancient Maya land use strategies; in Chinikihá and Busiljá, the major agricultural domain was developed in the lowlands, implying largescale artificial drainage. On the contrary, in Yalahau, mostly upland Rendzinas were cultivated, implying “precision agriculture” and “container gardening.”

In this work, we present the results of a soil study in the Teuhtli volcano, located to the south of the Basin of Mexico with the aim to understand the pedogenetic pathways and the evolution of the landscape dynamics. Two different types of soil profiles were sampled: in “conserved” areas, with less anthropogenic influence and in sites with intense agriculture activities since pre-Hispanic times. The three conserved profiles are located in different landscape positions: the Cima profile in the summit, the Ladera profile in the high slope, and the Yotecón in a lower position of the piedemont. The agriculture profiles are La Cruz, La Era and El Llano, situated in the foothill. Properties in both kind of soils are similar, however, in agriculture sites, structure (evaluated in macro and microscale) is weaker, total organic carbon content is smaller and bulk density is higher. Both soils show two main pedogenetic processes: andosolization and carbonate formation. Despite the age of the parent material (36 000 years), the Andosol phase has not been lost. This is because of the geomorphological dynamics of the zone, in which the processes of erosion and colluviation promote soil loss, restarting the pedogenetic clock. The detection of lithological discontinuities (by the Ti/Zr ratio) documents these processes. By the other hand, the formation of pedogenic carbonates is governed by the seasonal conditions of drought. The age of these carbonates places their formation in the mid-Holocene, an epoch for which drier conditions are detected in other sites of the Basin of Mexico. The agricultural land use has also promoted morphological, chemical and physical changes in the soils. The continuous tillage of the sites has prevented the soils from developing. This could have a negative effect on the fertility of those soils currently used to sustain the peri-urban agroecosystems of Mexico City.

Este artículo muestra las aproximaciones interdisciplinarias que integran conocimientos respecto a los suelos de cementerios contemporáneos y antiguos e inhumaciones clandestinas que producen interés científico bio-geo-arqueológico, forense reciente, lo anterior es lo que compila el estudio de los Necrosoles. Las investigaciones al respecto, plantean interrogantes pedogenéticos, antropogénicos, morfológicos, de características físico-químicas y microbiológicas. Así los Necrosoles se definen con precisión e incluyen en propuestas para sistemas taxonómicos locales y mundiales. Los suelos de los cementerios tienen propiedades físico-químicas y microbiológicas variables, antrópicas, temporalidades e insumos orgánicos e inorgánicos exógenos y predominancia de procesos de cambio ambiental. Actualmente, las necrópolis en las urbes y la proximidad a fuentes de agua e impactos de estos suelos en la salud pública y ambiente, se evalúan en investigaciones científicas. También aumenta el interés por las características de entierros ilegales de cuerpos humanos e integración de herramientas pedológicas y forenses. Revisamos los estudios de Necrosoles y el desarrollo de la investigación científica experimental ligada a efectos e implicaciones de entierros humanos

The Bogotá savanna is a very important site for Colombian archeology. At this site, researchers have identified the settlements of hunter-gatherers and agricultural farmers who inhabited the territory from the late Pleistocene to the late Holocene. These archaeological studies have established the ways of life, social dynamics and environmental interactions of these groups. To clarify settlement processes, this article presents a detailed micromorphological and micromorphometric analysis of sediments collected in archeological excavations conducted at the Tequendama and Aguazuque sites in the municipality of Soacha, Cundinamarca. This analysis quantifies the contents of archaeological materials, such as bone and coal, as well as carbonate remains, which are associated with various activities. The results show differences in the abundance of bones and charcoal between settlement levels. Level 7A (dated 6,897-7,001 BP) of the Tequendama site shows the highest density of occupation and activities of all levels analyzed in this study. Furthermore, based on paleoenvironmental interpretation, the presence of secondary carbonates indicates arid conditions in the Bogotá savanna matching the regional climatic records.

Abstract The paleoclimate during the Early Eocene in Maritime Antarctica is characterized by cool conditions without a pronounced dry season. Soils formed on volcanic material under such climate conditions in modern analogue environments are usually Andosols rich in nanocrystalline minerals without pedogenic smectite. The paleosols formed on volcanic material on King Georges Island are covered by basalts, dated by 6 new 40Ar/39Ar datings to 51–48 Ma, and are rich in smectite. A pedogenic origin of the smectites would suggest a semi-arid rather than a wet non-seasonal humid paleoclimate. To investigate the origin of the smectites in these paleosols we used X-ray diffraction and microscopic techniques. Minor mineralogical changes between the volcanic parent material and the paleosols and a homogenous distribution of smectites throughout the paleosol horizons indicate that these smectites were mainly inherited from the pyroclastic parent material, which was altered prior to surficial weathering. Nevertheless, the mineralogical properties, such as degree of crystallinity and octahedral site occupancy, of these smectites were modified during the ancient soil formation. Our findings highlight that trioctahedral smectites were a product of deuteric alteration of pyroclastic rocks and were progressively transformed to dioctahedral smectites during weathering in a soil environment on King George Island.

Este estudio. en una primera aproximación, muestra que las caracteristicas del suelo y de los subsistemas que integran al paisaje, pueden aportar conocimientos sobre los ecosistemas del pasado y su distribución espacial. Por lo tanto, también pueden ser utilizados como indicadores de periodos de estabilidad del paisaje, cortos o largos. Esta aplicación se basa en la evaluación del tiempo de formación de una determinada propiedad diagnóstica del suelo en diferentes intervalos. Este artículo presenta un análisis de paleosuelos pleistocénicos dei Nevado de Toiuca con el fin de identificar los diferentes periodos de estabilidad volcánica a través de diversos indices obtenidos a partir de propiedades seleccionadas. Los resultados encontrados indican tres tipos básicos de pedogénesis: 0 ciclos cortos en que sólo se formaron algunos horizontes Ah y AB evidenciando varios eventos volcánicos sucesivos en un lapso de 1 000-2 000 arios y, en consecuencia, mayor inestabilidad; ii) ciclos moderados que permitieron la formación de andosoles y iii) ciclos prolongados en los cuales se formaron suelos con perfiles AhlEiBtlC, aun cuando se encuentran decapitados. El tiempo inferido de su formacion comprende hasta 10 000 años, indicando periodos significativos de estabilidad donde la actividad volcánica fue menor.

Se presenta un estudio de tepetates localizados en el glacis de Buenavista, Morelos. La sección estudiada en Ahuatenco cuenta con una secuencia de siete capas de horizontes endurecidos (tepetates), los cuales subyacen a un paleosuelo arcilloso poligenético muy bien desarrollado (similar a un luvisol). En este trabajo, los tepetates se consideran productos no sólo de procesos de erosión y sedimentación, sino también de pedogénesis, por lo que son paleosuelos con diferente grado de desarrollo. Las evidencias micro y macromorfológicas muestran que los tepetates están constituidos por una mezcla de material volcánico fresco, fragmentos de horizontes de suelo redepositado y rasgos relacionados con la pedogénesis, los cuales incluyen: cutanes de arcilla, nodulos de hierro-manganeso, intemperismo de minerales primarios y acumulación de fitolitos en la matriz de las capas. Estas propiedades evidencian que los tepetates estuvieron expuestos en la superficie el tiempo suficiente para el desarrollo de la pedogénesis. El material parental de estos tepetates es material vulcanogénico, procedente de diferentes focos eruptivos, así como de materiales de horizontes Bt que fueron erosionados de las partes más altas y redepositados junto con el material volcánico. Debido a la presencia de estos fragmentos de horizontes Bt, el contenido de arcilla es alto (47%) en los horizontes endurecidos; sin embargo, su distribución es contrastante, lo que ayuda a reforzar la idea de discontinuidades mineralógicas y texturales, de modo que cada capa representa probablemente una etapa distinta de evolución del paisaje. El grado de alteración que revela cada capa es diferente, de tal manera que los periodos de estabilidad, bajo los cuales ocurrió la pedogénesis, fueron diferentes.

During the Late Pleistocene, Mexico had a richer fauna than today with many different forms of megafauna that are now extinct. However, the ecosystems they inhabited and the particular ecological niches that they occupied are still poorly understood. Most of the findings of Pleistocene megafauna have been in alluvial deposits that present rich opportunities for paleoecological studies using paleopedological records. Floodplain paleosols commonly are poorly developed. However, micromorphological analysis provides information about the grade of development of the soil at a microscale, discriminating between genetic and sedimentary processes; thus helping in the identification of the environmental setting in which they formed. We analyzed the micromorphology of six pedogenetic units in the sequences of Santa Cruz Nuevo and Axamilpa, in the south of Puebla, and Huexoyucan, in the state of Tlaxcala. These pedosequences correspond to the second half of marine isotopic stage 3 (MIS3), MIS2 and the early Holocene. All studied units are characterized by strong pigmentation with dark humus. The micromorphological analysis of MIS3 paleosols reveals aquatic conditions with evidence of freshwater biota and microlamination as well as pedogenetic features of hydrogenic carbonate precipitation and redoximorphic processes. The dark paleosols of MIS2 and the early Holocene demonstrate signs of stronger coprogenic aggregation, weathering and fewer gleyic features. Comparison with modern soils shows that the latter were formed under better-drained, aerated conditions that exclude redoximorphic processes. We conclude that the dark colored Pleistocene paleosol units are indicative of different paleo-landscapes: wetlands in the MIS3 and moist meadows in MIS2 early Holocene. The swampy ecosystems could play an important role as a megafauna habitat.En el Pleistoceno Tardío, México tenía una diversidad faunística más rica que en la actualidad, con diferentes formas de megafauna, hoy extinta. Sin embargo, los ecosistemas que habitaron y determinados nichos ecológicos que ocupaban son poco conocidos. Los hallazgos más numerosos de la megafauna del Pleistoceno han sido en depósitos aluviales, los cuales son registros paleoecológicos importantes que representan una excelente oportunidad para ser estudiados. Los paleosuelos aluviales regularmente son poco desarrollados, sin embargo, el análisis micromorfológico proporciona información relevante sobre el grado de desarrollo del suelo a una microescala, permitiendo discriminar entre los procesos edafogenéticos y sedimentarios; ayudando con ello a la identificación de la configuración del medio ambiente en el que se formaron. Nosotros analizamos la micromofología de seis unidades edafogenéticas en las secuencias de Santa Cruz Nuevo y Axamilpa, en el sur de Puebla y Huexoyucan, en el estado de Tlaxcala. Estas edafosecuencias corresponden a la segunda mitad de la etapa isotópica marina 3 (MIS3), etapa isotópica marina 2 MIS2 y al Holoceno Temprano. Todas las unidades estudiadas se caracterizan por una fuerte pigmentación con humus oscuro. El análisis micromorfológico de los paleosuelos de MIS3 revela condiciones acuáticas con evidencias de biota de agua dulce, como también microlaminaciones de precipitación de carbonatos hidrogénicos y procesos redoximórficos. Los paleosuelos oscuros de MIS2 y el Holoceno Temprano muestran fuerte agregación coprogénica, intemperismo y pocos rasgos gleycos, presentando fuertes diferencias con los suelos modernos. Los suelos modernos se formaron en condiciones aireadas, con un mejor drenaje que excluyen los procesos redoximórficos. Llegamos a la conclusión de que las unidades de paleosuelos del Pleistoceno de color oscuro son indicativos de diferentes paleopaisajes: humedales pantanosos en la MIS3 y praderas húmedas desde MIS2 hasta el Holoceno Temprano. Los ecosistemas pantanosos podrían representar un importante hábitat para la megafauna del Pleistoceno.No Pleistocénico tardio, o México apresentava uma diversidade faunística mais rica que na actualidade, com diferentes formas de megafauna, hoje extinta. Sem dúvida, os ecossistemas que habitaram e determinados nichos ecológicos que ocupavam são pouco conhecidos. A maioria dos numerosos achados da megafauna do Pleistocénico foi em depósitos aluviais, que representam registos importantes paleoecológicos pelo que constituem uma excelente oportunidade para serem estudados. Os paleosolos aluviais são geralmente pouco desenvolvidos, pelo que a análise micromorfológica proporciona, sem dúvida, informação relevante sobre o grau de desenvolvimento do solo à microescala, permitindo distinguir entre os processos pedogenéticos e sedimentares, ajudando com isso à identificação da configuração do ambiente em que se formaram. No nosso estudo, procedeu-se à análise da micromofología de seis unidades pedogenéticas nas sequências de Santa Cruz Nuevo e Axamilpa, no Sul de Puebla e Huexoyucan, no estado de Tlaxcala. Estas pedosequências correspondem à segunda metade da etapa isotópica marinha 3 (MIS3), etapa isotópica marinha 2 MIS2 e ao Holocénico Inicial. Todas as unidades estudadas caracterizavam-se por uma forte pigmentação com húmus escuro. A análise micromorfológica dos paleosolos de MIS3 revelou condições aquáticas com evidências de biota de água doce, bem como microlaminações de precipitação de carbonatos hidrogenados e processos redoximórficos. Los paleosolos escuros de MIS2 e o Holocénico Inicial apresentavam forte agregação cuprogénica, intemperismo e poucas características gleycos, apresentando grandes diferenças para os solos modernos. Os solos modernos formaram-se em condições de arejamento, com uma melhor drenagem que excluem os processos redoximórficos. Deste estudo concluímos que as unidades de paleosolos do Pleistocénico de cor escura são indicativas de diferentes paleopaisagens: zonas húmidas pantanosas na MIS3 e prados húmidos desde MIS2 até ao Holocénico Inicial. Os ecossistemas pantanosos poderão representar um importante habitat para a megafauna do Pleistocénico.

The paper provides new evidence on the pedogeomorphic history of the Valley of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The soil landscape here consists of Luvisol and "black soil", the micromorphology of which allowed us to (a) distinguish between in situ and inherited processes and (b) establish spatial relationships of erosion and sedimentation along a toposequence of three soil profiles. Soil profiles sites were selected by photointerpretation followed by verification on a toposequence from middle mountain slope to colluvial piedmont. Samples of these profiles were characterized by physical and chemical analyses, including micromorphological observation under a petrographic microscope. The results are summarized as geomorphic observations, description and analysis of soil profiles along a catena, and micromorphological features. The final data set permits recognition and interpretation of both present-day pedofeatures and inherited pedofeatures due to past hillslope processes. In the "black soil", the key processes include development of vertic features, humification and CaCO3 accumulation; while micromorphology revealed fragments of illuvial clay along with disorthic ferruginous nodules. In the Luvisol, clay illuviation dominates and is associated with redoximorphic features. Strongly weathered pumice fragments and less weathered mineral and rock fragments were observed in the vertic horizons. Because the pedofeatures of the "black soil" strongly differ from those of the Luvisol, we can readily identify the cases where Luvisol materials were inherited by the "black soil". Thus, the micromorphological observations allow us to propose that the "black soil" was likely to incorporate Luvisol materials that were earlier colluviated. The presumed erosional phase may correspond with climatic aridization.Este trabajo proporciona nuevas evidencias sobre la historia edafológica y geomorfológica en el Valle de Teotihuacán, México. El paisaje del suelo en este lugar está formado por un Luvisol y un "suelo negro", cuyos análisis micromorfológicos permitieron: (a) distinguir entre procesos in situ y procesos heredados, y (b) establecer las relaciones espaciales de erosión/sedimentación a través de una catena de tres perfiles de suelo. La selección de los suelos se realizó a partir de fotointerpretación y posterior verificación de una toposecuencia que mostraba una distribución desde ladera media hasta piedemonte coluvial. Las muestras de estos perfiles fueron caracterizadas de manera físico-química, incluyendo la observación micromorfológica de láminas delgadas con microscopio petrográfico. Los resultados obtenidos se resumen en las observaciones geomorfológicas, la descripción y el análisis de los perfiles de suelo de la catena Zacatlán, y los resultados micromorfológicos. El conjunto permitió interpretar y reconocer tanto los procesos edafogenéticos actuales como los heredados debidos al transporte por erosión de suelo en épocas pasadas. En el "suelo negro" los procesos clave son el desarrollo de propiedades vérticas, la humificación y la acumulación de carbonatos secundarios; la micromorfología también reveló fragmentos de arcilla iluviada y nódulos de hierro redepositados. En el Luvisol domina la iluviación de arcilla asociada con procesos redoximórficos. En los horizontes vérticos se observó la presencia de fragmentos de pómez fuertemente meteorizados coexistiendo con fragmentos de roca y minerales con débil meteorización. Los edaforrasgos del "suelo negro" difieren fuertemente de los del Luvisol, lo cual permitió reconocer rasgos heredados del Luvisol en los horizontes del "suelo negro". Por lo tanto, las observaciones micromorfológicas nos permiten proponer que el "suelo negro" probablemente incorporó materiales del Luvisol, los cuales fueron anteriormente coluviados. La presunta fase de erosión puede corresponder con una aridización climática.Este estudo fornece novas evidências sobre a história pedológica e geomorfológica do Vale de Teotihuacán, México. A paisagem do solo neste local consiste num Luvissolo e num "solo negro", cujas análises micromorfológicas permitiram: (a) distinguir entre processos in situ e processos herdados, e (b) estabelecer as relações espaciais de erosão/sedimentação através de una catena de três perfis de solo. A selecção dos solos realizou-se com base na fotointerpretação e posterior verificação de uma toposequência que apresentava uma distribuição desde meia encosta até um depósito de sopé coluvial. As amostras destes perfis caracterizaram-se física e quimicamente e por observação micromorfológica de lâminas delgadas com microscópio petrográfico. Os resultados obtidos resumem-se nas observações geomorfológicas, descrição e análise dos perfis do solo da catena Zacatlán, e nos resultados micromorfológicos. O conjunto destes resultados permitiu interpretar e reconhecer quer os processos pedogenéticos actuais quer os herdados devidos ao transporte por erosão do solo em épocas passadas. No "solo negro" os processos chave são o desenvolvimento de propriedades vérticas, a humificação e a acumulação de carbonatos secundários; a micromorfologia também revelou fragmentos de argila iluviada e nódulos ferruginosos disórticos. No Luvissolo domina a iluviação de argila associada a processos redoximórficos. Nos horizontes vérticos observou-se a presença de fragmentos de pedra-pomes fortemente meteorizados coexistindo com fragmentos de rocha e minerais com fraca meteorização. As características pedológicas do "solo negro" diferem fortemente das do Luvissolo, o que permitiu reconhecer características herdadas do Luvissolo nos horizontes do "solo negro". Assim, as observações micromorfológicas permitem-nos sugerir que o "solo negro" provavelmente incorporou materiais do Luvissolo, anteriormente coluviados. A presumível fase de erosão pode coincidir com uma aridização climática.

Researchers have related the manufacturing technique of plasters and stucco in the Maya area with their period of production but not with their architectural function. In this paper, we establish a relationship between those three features (manufacturing technique, age, and architectural function) in the plasters of the Maya site of Dzibanché in southern Quintana Roo. Dzibanché has abundant remains of stuccos and plasters found mainly in three buildings (Plaza Pom, Pequeña Acrópolis, and Structure 2). We used thin sections, SEM and XRD, and archaeomagnetic dating processes. The pictorial layer of Structure 2 was the earliest (AD 274–316 and the stuccoes and plasters of the other two buildings were dated to the Middle Classic (AD 422–531), but we obtained different archaeomagnetic dates for the red pigment layers found in the buildings of the Pequeña Acrópolis and thus we were able to determine their chronological order of construction. The raw materials and proportions were carefully chosen to fulfil the mechanical necessities of the architectonic function: different proportions were found in plasters of floors, in the external walls, and inside the buildings; differences between earlier and later plasters were also detected.

This study, in a first approximation, shows that the characteristics of soil and subsystems comprising landscape may provide knowledge on past ecosystems and their spatial distribution. Therefore, they may also be used as Indicators of short or long landscape stability periods, this application is based on the assessment of the time taken for the formation of a given soil diagnostic property at various temporal scales. This article presents an analysis of Pleistocene paleosoils of the Nevado de Toluca volcano, aimed at identifying the different periods of volcanic stability through several Indices obtained from the properties chosen. Findings indicate three basic pedogenesis types: i) short cycles in which only some Ah and AB horizons were formed, as evidences of several successive volcanic events that occurred along a period of 1000 - 2000 years and, consequently, of a greater instability; ii) moderate cycles which allowed the formation of Andosols and iii) prolonged cycles in which soils with Ah/ E/Bt/C profiles were formed, although they are currently beheaded. The estimated time that elapsed since its formation comprises 10 000 years, indicating significant stability periods where volcanic activity dropped.