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Online peer feedback has proven to be practically useful for instructors and to be useful for learning, especially for the feedback provider. Because students can vary widely in skill level, some research has explored matching reviewer and author by performance level. However, past research on the impacts of reviewer matching has found little effect but used a simple binary high-low approach, which may mask the relative benefits of performance matching. In the current study, we leveraged a large dataset involving three large biology courses implementing multiple assignments with online peer feedback. This large dataset enabled dividing students into four levels of relative task performance to tease apart the relative contributions of providing and receiving feedback within the 16 different author-reviewer performance pairings. The results reveal that changes in task performance over assignments attributable to reviewing experiences vary by these finer-grained prior performance distinctions. In particular, providing to students at the same performance level appears to be beneficial, and receiving feedback from students at the same level is helpful except for very low-performing students. A simulation was used to examine the combined effects of receiving and providing under different algorithms for assigning reviewers to documents. The simulations suggest a matching algorithm will produce overall better outcomes than a random assignment algorithm for students at each of the four performance levels.

Research has shown that engaging students in peer feedback can help students revise documents and improve their writing skills. But the mechanistic pathways by which skills develop have remained untested: Does receiving and providing feedback lead to learning because it produces more extensive revision behavior or is such immediate implementation of feedback unnecessary? These pathways were tested through analyses of the relationships between feedback provided and received, feedback implemented and overall revisions, and improved writing quality in a new article. Overall, the number of revisions predicted growth in writing ability, and both amount of received and provided feedback were associated with being more likely to make revisions. However, providing feedback was also directly related to growth in writing ability.

Background: Many studies have shown that ambitious, "student centered" approaches to STEM instruction benefit K-12 student learning. However, relatively little research has systematically investigated the learning processes that support teachers to skillfully enact these challenging pedagogies. In this study, we used a mixed-methods, case-comparison design to examine one kind of teacher learning routine, Mental Simulations for Teacher Reflection (MSTR), for advancing robust teacher learning in the context of one mathematics-focused instructional coaching intervention. Specifically, this study draws from a large, state-wide representative dataset to select carefully matched, contrasting cases to analyze the quality of coach-teacher conversations for teachers who showed very similar baseline instructional quality but then large differences in levels of improvement. We began by qualitatively coding detailed transcripts from selected coach-teacher pairs as they reflected on lesson artifacts (i.e., lesson plans, student work, and coach observations) using MSTR as an analytical lens. Next, quantitative analyses were conducted to determine the extent to which mental simulations characterized significant differences in the conversations of high- vs. low-instructional growth pairs. Lastly, additional qualitative analyses explored finer-grain distinctions in the quality of mental simulation talk in high- vs. low-growth pairs. Results: Quantitative analyses showed high-growth pairs were significantly more likely to engage in mental simulation talk compared to their low-growth counterparts. Moreover, the high-growth pairs were much more likely to initiate (i.e., raise an instructional ambiguity or problem for discussion) as well as complete (i.e., generate and weigh alternative instructional strategies) a MSTR routine. Qualitative analyses further revealed that engaging teachers' in-depth pedagogical reasoning to connect specific teaching moves to conceptual learning goals in mental simulations was a key distinction of the high-growth coaches. Conclusions: These findings indicate MSTR captured meaningful variation in coaching quality in this context. Notably, all coaches discussed the same instructional topics with teachers (i.e., teaching--learning goals and dimensions) and engaged in the same training that did not explicitly include MSTR, suggesting the possibility that MSTR captured a more implicit process of effective coaches. This study thus offers insight into the 'black box' of teacher learning and how it can be supported in similar professional learning contexts.

Although peer review has been widely used for formative assessment in writing instruction, there remain concerns about whether assessors are at a sufficient writing performance level that would allow them to identify major problems in the reviewed work and provide helpful feedback to improve draft quality. Little empirical research has examined how assessor writing performance specifically influences problem identification accuracy and helpfulness of feedback, nor has it acknowledged different grain sizes of assessor performance. Assessor writing performance at different grain sizes (i.e., performance at the levels of genre, dimension of a genre, and specific problem topic) was assessed alongside problem identification accuracy and feedback helpfulness in 234 high school students who participated in an anonymous multipeer review in a secondary writing course in the United States. A correlation analysis showed that assessor performance levels on specific problem topics were meaningfully separable, thereby allowing for consideration of the effects of assessor performance at genre, dimension, and topic levels. Multiple regression results indicated that assessor writing performance was unrelated to problem identification accuracy at any grain size. Therefore, scaffolds in the reviewing process appear sufficient to support problem identification accuracy. However, assessor writing performance, particularly on specific dimensions and specific topics, consistently predicted helpfulness of feedback, even though lower performing assessors rarely produce incorrect advice. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Peer feedback activities are characterized by peers performing both roles of feedback provider and receiver, and peers are found to benefit from both roles. However, in current feedback literacy studies, the emphasis has been overwhelmingly given to students' understandings, capacities and dispositions in receiving feedback, and existing student feedback literacy scales measure only the receiving side of feedback literacy. Students learn from providing and what they provide fundamentally shapes what others receive. This study conceptualizes peer feedback literacy as students' capacities and attitudes in providing and receiving peer feedback, and developed and validated a peer feedback literacy scale on the basis of responses from 474 Chinese university students. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted, and four factors emerged: feedback-related knowledge and abilities, cooperative learning ability, appreciation of peer feedback, and willingness to participate. The resulting scale showed good psychometric properties and revealed some surprising associations with student major, year and amount of prior experience.

Background: For peer assessment, reliability (i.e., consistency in ratings across peers) and validity (i.e., consistency of peer ratings with instructors or experts) are frequently examined in the research literature to address a central concern of instructors and students. Although the average levels are generally promising, both reliability and validity can vary substantially from context to context. Meta-analyses have identified a few moderators that are related to peer assessment reliability/validity, but they have lacked statistical power to systematically investigate many moderators or disentangle correlated moderators. Objectives: The current study fills this gap by addressing what variables influence peer assessment reliability/validity using a large-scale, cross-context dataset from a shared online peer assessment platform. Methods: Using multi-level structural equation models, we examined three categories of variables: (1) variables related to the context of peer assessment; (2) variables related to the peer assessment task itself; and (3) variables related to rating rubrics of peer assessment. Results and Conclusions: We found that the extent to which assessment documents varied in quality on the given rubric played a central role in mediating the effect from different predictors to peer assessment reliability/validity. Other variables that are significantly associated with reliability and validity included: Education Level, Language, Discipline, Average Ability of Peer Raters, Draft Number, Assignment Number, Class Size, Average Number of Raters, and Length of Rubric Description. The results provide information to guide practitioners on how to improve reliability and validity of peer assessments.

Gender disparities in retention in pathways to science continue to vary widely by course. Undergraduates intending to study prehealth and premedicine often represent a majority of students enrolled in introductory science courses, contribute to a large number of eventual science degree earners, and are a population that typically includes a high number of women. However, gender differences in attrition, grades, and attitudes persist in the introductory science courses required by undergraduate preheath and premedical programs, particularly within the physical sciences (i.e., Chemistry and Physics). We use structural equation modeling to study 416 undergraduate students across multiple sections of an Algebra-based Physics course, a common course on the prehealth and premedical track where large gender differences in grades, retention and competency beliefs have been documented. Our analysis focuses on identifying potential academic and attitudinal sources for gender differences in students' beliefs about their Physics abilities at the end of the course, and retention to the second physics course, which is often influenced by these competency beliefs. Results suggest that while men's ability beliefs in Physics are relatively stable and largely derived from early performance indicators, this is a smaller source of ability beliefs for women. Instead, women's ability beliefs are mediated during the course through their sense of belonging in Physics, and the extent to which they believe that Physics ability is fixed or malleable. These findings can inform the design of interventions in Physics courses that specifically target the development of ability beliefs for women intending medical careers.

This study investigated the revision effectiveness of peer feedback in comparison with teacher feedback, before and after a peer feedback training intervention that was designed to be implementable in large teaching load contexts and with EFL students. Fifty-six EFL students across two different class sections received teacher or peer feedback before and after training across five different writing assignments, with feedback conditions manipulated within and between class sections. Results show that EFL peer reviewers can provide more meaning-focused feedback than do teachers and that the impact of each piece of feedback on revision quality improves after training.

Background: Motivational factors are one active area of research that aims to increase the inclusion of women in physics. One of these factors that has only recently gained traction in physics is intelligence mindset (i.e., the belief that intelligence is either innate and unchangeable or can be developed). We studied 781 students in calculus-based Physics 1 to investigate if their mindset views were separable into more nuanced dimensions, if they varied by gender/sex and over time, and if they predicted course grade. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to divide mindset survey questions along two dimensions: myself versus others and growth versus ability aspects of mindset. Paired and unpaired t-tests were used to compare mindset factors over time and between genders, respectively. Multiple regression analysis was used to find which mindset factors were the best predictors of course grade. Results: This study shows that intelligence mindset can be divided into four factors: My Ability, My Growth, Others' Ability, and Others' Growth. Further, it reveals that gender differences are more pronounced in the "My" categories than the "Others'" categories. At the start of the course, there are no gender differences in any mindset component, except for My Ability. However, gender differences develop in each component from the start to the end of the course, and in the My Ability category, the gender differences increase over time. Finally, we find that My Ability is the only mindset factor that predicts course grade. Conclusion: These results allow for a more nuanced view of intelligence mindset than has been suggested in previous interview and survey-based work. By looking at the differences in mindset factors over time, we see that learning environments affect women's and men's intelligence mindsets differently. The largest gender difference is in My Ability, the factor that best predicts course grade. This finding has implications for developing future mindset interventions and opens new opportunities to eliminate classroom inequities.

Physics is a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics discipline in which women are severely underrepresented. Prior work has identified motivation-based explanations for low participation and retention rates of women in physics. Among various motivational factors, intelligence mindsets (i.e., having fixed or growth mindsets) have been rarely examined in the context of physics. Because physics is commonly associated with requiring brilliance to be successful, many students are likely to hold fixed mindset views for physics, which can be especially detrimental for students from underrepresented groups. We examined physics mindset views of 755 engineering and physical-science majors enrolled in calculus-based Physics 1 to understand separable aspects of such views, how these views varied by gender or sex (i.e., for female versus male students), and whether they predicted physics course grade. Multidimensional scaling analyses revealed four different mindset views that are relatively independently held beliefs. Multiple regression analyses showed that physics course grade is most closely associated with whether students deny or accept a fixed mindset view about themselves in particular. One particular view also had the largest gender difference. Therefore, understanding why students hold different mindset views and designing appropriate interventions for physics courses are important areas to consider in efforts seeking to improve outcomes in physics for diverse student groups.

Teacher learning is a huge challenge in instructional change, but relatively little work has carefully examined the mechanisms by which teachers learn, in contrast to the extensive work on programs that help teachers learn and the high-leverage instructional practices that are strong predictors of student learning. Specifically, relatively little is known about how teachers learn to effectively implement these new instructional practices. Using a mixed-methods, case-comparison design, this study examines specific instructional coaching practices that support 4th-8th grade mathematics teachers in learning to implement ambitious instructional practices. The study leverages a large, state-wide representative dataset in order to purposively select carefully-matched contrasting cases for qualitative analysis from a starting sample of hundreds of teachers, which enabled selecting teachers that began in a very similar place but then progressed at different rates. In-depth qualitative coding was systematically conducted on detailed transcripts of coach-teacher conversations from these carefully selected cases. Finally, these codes were analyzed quantitatively to determine whether the content and form of these conversations predicted improvement in teachers' instructional practices. Results showed that coach-teacher pairs who discuss when and why certain practices should be implemented, and provide more opportunities for teacher input, see larger gains in ambitious instruction in later lessons. Implications for a coaching model based in the cognitive sciences are discussed.

Prior research suggests that students endorsing a science identity are more likely to participate in optional science experiences and choose STEM careers. Science identity is a topical identity, which refers to an identity related to a topic rather than a social or cultural group. However, studies of topical identities typically examine them in isolation. The current study identified typically occurring combinations of topical identities as identity complexes to determine whether science identity would tend to occur within STEM-only complexes or together within larger topical identity complexes. Over 1200 urban public-school students in 6th, 7th, and 9th grades from two different regions in the USA completed surveys asking about their topical identities, choice preferences, and optional science experiences. Latent class analyses revealed that students often endorse science identities in the context of other unrelated identities like athletic and artistic identities. Further, the frequency (overall and relative to each other) of the two high-science identity complexes varied substantially by gender, ethnicity, and grade. These patterns were not simple reflects of the commonly observed overall rates of science identity by demographics. Further, students in topical complexes with high science identity still had high participation in optional science experiences despite having many topical identities that could compete for time.

Implementing peer feedback in revisions is a complex process involving first planning to fix problems and then actual implementing feedback through revisions. Both phases are influenced by features of the peer feedback itself, but potentially in different ways, and yet prior research has not examined their separate role in planning or the mediating role of planning in the relationship of feedback features and implementation. We build on a process model to investigate whether feedback features had differing relationships to plans to ignore or act on feedback versus actual implementation of feedback in the revision, and whether planning mediated the relationship of feedback features and actual implementation. Source data consisted of peer feedback comments received, revision plans made, and revisions implemented by 125 US high school students given a shared writing assignment. Comments were coded for feedback features and implementation in the revision. Multiple regression analyses revealed that having a comment containing a specific solution or a general suggestion predicted revision plans whereas having a comment containing an explanation predicted actual implementation. Planning mediated the relationship to actual implementation for the two feedback features predicting plans, suggestion and solution. Implications for practice are discussed.

The Coalition for Science After School highlights the dual nature of outcomes for science learning during out-of- school time (OST): Learning experiences should not only be positive in the moment, but also position youth for future success. Several frameworks speak to the first set of immediate outcomes--what youth learn, think, and feel as the result of informal learning experiences. Much less research has been conducted on longer-term outcomes--how OST experiences affect engagement over time, prepare youth for future learning, or even influence career trajectories. In general, the field urgently needs research and practice frameworks that speak directly to the ways OST programming produces longer-term learning, engagement, and career outcomes. Responding to this need, the authors have been developing a new framework and set of assessments built on the idea of "science learning activation". Building on recent advances in science education, sociocultural studies, and cognitive and social psychology, the authors define "science learning activation" as the dispositions, practices, and knowledge that enable learners to be successful in science learning and that are, in turn, influenced by success. This paper draws on in-depth interviews with and observations of adults and youth to explore this new concept. The authors' work so far supports a positive feedback model: the four dimensions of activation (fascination, valuing science, competency beliefs, and scientific sensemaking) all have positive effects on one or more of the aspects of success--choice, engagement, perceived success, and learning--which in turn predict increases in the dimensions of activation. Thus, science learning activation appears to provide developmental momentum that can support persistent success in science learning.

Meta-analyses suggest that peer feedback is particularly useful for learning, but additional research is needed to understand the large variation in effect sizes that is regularly seen. We examined the relationship between amount of provided and received feedback with growth in writing and reading performance in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners across multiple assignments. Only provided comments, and in particular comments on meaning-level issues, were consistently associated with growth in writing performance. These types of comments were also associated with growth in reading performance, but less consistently so. Comments provided at the surface level were either uncorrelated or negatively correlated with growth in writing performance; follow up analyses suggest that the nature of the comments provided in response to training can explain the changes in effectiveness over assignments. Amount of comments received was never associated with growth in writing or reviewing skills. These findings highlight the value of peer feedback assignment focused on meaning-level issues, even for EFL learners. Further, these findings add to the growing literature that suggest that extensive opportunities to provide meaning-level feedback, especially when it is detailed, is critical for student learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peer review is regularly found to be a powerful and efficient technique for assessment and feedback, but many students are inexperienced and sometimes struggle to provide meaningful feedback. It is considered best practice to provide students with some training on how to be a good reviewer, but few classes can afford to devote much time to such training, and the assumption is that review quality will improve with experience. This study directly examines what kinds of experiences during peer feedback activities improve reviewing quality. In particular, organized by theories of norm-setting and practice-based learning, it examines the relationship of the amount of provided and received feedback on one assignment to improvements in the quality of feedback on the next assignment. Data on peer feedback experiences and behaviors across multiple assignments were taken from students across two introductory level undergraduate courses (N = 360). Multi-regression analyses reveal that the number and length of feedback provided predicted growth in helpfulness rates, and both improvements in domain performance and the reviewer's preference for length explains the effects on review helpfulness. Further, compared with high-performing students, low-performing students show more remarkable growth in helpfulness from providing feedback.

Digital badges have long been assumed to possess motivational qualities that could encourage learners to engage with learning content. However, prior studies have found the effects of badges to be complex, differing by learner, type of badge, and potentially other factors. Qualitative reports suggest that individuals' perceptions of digital badges may play a role in moderating badges' effects: badges are only motivating when they are perceived as relevant and desirable. In the current study, we examine longitudinal episodes of data from 2,410 middle and high school users of a badged online programming curriculum to test whether there is evidence that learners' perceptions of badges' relevance predict changes in engagement over time; and whether that relationship is equitable with respect to age, sex, and ethnicity. We also investigate whether a reciprocal relationship may exist in which engagement predicts relative increases in learners' perceptions of badges as relevant to them. Learners' positive perceptions of badges' relevance predicted rank-order increases in engagement over time. Further, this relationship did not vary by age, sex, or minoritized racial/ethnic status. In addition, higher engagement also predicted upward shifts in perceived badge relevance. These results suggest that learners' subjective evaluations of digital badges are closely related to changes in their engagement with program activities, that badged engagement neither widens nor closes educational equity gaps, and that learners' regard for badges and engagement in program activities may be mutually reinforcing.

Process oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) is a specific type of active learning centered on a learning cycle where students first explore a concept through scientific models, followed by a concept invention, and finally a concept application phase. In spite of POGIL's research-based design and the many studies showing it increases learning outcomes, there is still a critical gap in the knowledge behind the effect of POGIL in attitudinal factors and the mechanisms behind it. The current study seeks to build an understanding of the mechanistic ways in which POGIL works and its effect on students' attitudes and learning. The sample consisted of students who enrolled in General Chemistry I in the Fall semester across 7 sections (classrooms) at an R1 (large research) university in the eastern part of the US. Four sections used POGIL instruction (N = 809) while the other three used Traditional teaching methods (N = 543). Statistical models using multilevel statistics show students in the POGIL condition had higher chemistry identity, competency beliefs, and chemistry grades. Furthermore, performance in General Chemistry I appeared to be a core mediator of all the observed differences in General Chemistry II where students in the POGIL condition still performed better and had higher chemistry-related attitudes.

While gender parity has been achieved in overall science degree earning, large gaps still exist within many science disciplines. Further, studies addressing gender inequity in science often ignore a large source of undergraduate science degree earners: those who enroll in science courses intending to pursue careers in health or medicine. This study examines pathways toward or away from science degrees in N = 4,345 men and women enrolled in early science courses at a large undergraduate research university. Importantly, to understand shifts in students' academic intentions and how pathways to science may be differential by gender, this study analyzed students' incoming major and career intentions, estimates of incoming academic abilities, and relative performance in science and various non-science courses. Results show that while men and women initially intending to pursue a science major graduate with science degrees in equal numbers, the plurality of science degree earners are students entering college intending health or medical careers. Further, from those subgroups, a significantly larger proportion of men end up in science, while a significantly larger proportion of women end up outside of STEM completely. Understanding disciplinary differences in gender barriers to science participation can help inform interventions that specifically target those populations.

Self-efficacy is an aspect of students' motivation that has been shown to play a critical role in students' engagement, participation, and retention in academic careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Since women are underrepresented in STEM domains such as physics, we studied female and male students' self-efficacy and its relation to learning outcomes in physics that can be useful for creating equitable and inclusive learning environments. In a longitudinal study, we surveyed approximately 1400 students in calculus-based physics 2 courses to investigate students' motivational beliefs in physics using a validated survey. We examined female and male students' self-efficacy scores and the extent to which self-efficacy related to learning outcomes (students' grades and conceptual post-test scores), especially the significant gender difference in conceptual post-test scores. To reveal the unique contribution of self-efficacy on outcomes, we controlled for several other variables including Physics 1 grades, SAT math scores, and conceptual pretest scores in physics. We found that the gender differences in conceptual post-test performance were mediated by the model variables. In particular, initial self-efficacy differences showed a direct effect on outcomes even when controlling for students' prior physics knowledge and skill differences, and self-efficacy also had the strongest total gender effect on conceptual learning. Given these findings, future work should focus on better understanding the drivers of these self-efficacy differences including the role that societal stereotypes and biases play in these in order to mitigate these differences.

Background: Large achievement and motivation gaps exist in science between students from higher and lower socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds. Middle and high school are an important time to address these disparities, as science motivation typically declines for all students at this time, leading to particularly low science interest and achievement for lower SES students on average when the gaps are left unaddressed. Students' control over their free time also increases at this time, providing opportunities for optional science experiences that may improve science attitudes and skills to combat these achievement and motivation gaps. Using a longitudinal dataset of 2252 middle and high school students from two regions in the USA, we investigate (1) disparities between higher and lower SES students in participation in optional summer science experiences and post-summer science attitudes and skills; (2) whether the child and family characteristics that predict participation in home-related, nature-related, and STEM camp experiences in the summer differ for higher and lower SES students; and (3) how participation in these types of optional summer science experiences contribute to post-summer science attitudes and skills when controlling for self-selection biases. Results: Higher SES students reported greater participation in optional summer science experiences and higher post-summer science attitudes and sensemaking skills. Fascination for science was more important for participation in home-related and nature-related experiences for higher SES participants, whereas science competency beliefs were more important for lower SES participants. For STEM camp experiences, higher SES participants with higher competency beliefs and lower SES participants with lower scientific sensemaking skills were more likely to participate. After controlling for self-selection biases that may influence participation in these experiences, we found that home-related and nature-related experiences had a positive impact on students' attitudes toward science. Conclusions: Our findings suggest two pathways for increasing participation in optional summer science experiences for higher SES and lower SES students. Specifically, it may be helpful to support interest in science for higher SES students and competency beliefs for lower SES students. Greater participation in home-related and nature-related summer science experiences can also increase science attitudes during middle and high school.

Background: Differences in post-secondary academic outcomes along dimensions of gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status are a major concern. Few studies have considered differences in patterns of academic outcomes and underlying mechanisms driving disparities across different STEM disciplines. Using data from about 4000 undergraduates in introductory STEM courses at a large, urban university in the eastern United States, this study examines how differences in course grades by gender, race/ethnicity, and parent education vary in introductory chemistry, physics, and psychology courses. In addition, structural equation modeling techniques examine whether academic resources and discipline-specific motivational attitudes are important mediators of demographic differences in course grades. Results: This study finds that women have higher course grades than men on average in psychology, and men have marginally higher grades than women in physics. In addition, students whose race/ethnicity is represented or overrepresented in these courses (students who are White and or Asian) have higher course grades in chemistry and physics and marginally higher grades in psychology on average compared with underrepresented students (who are Black, Latinx, Native American, Pacific Islander, and or other racial/ethnic backgrounds). Further, first-generation college students have lower course grades in physics and psychology on average than students with a college-educated parent. The largest average differences in course performance are about half a full letter grade (e.g., the difference between a B and an A-). This study also finds that some demographic differences in physics and chemistry performance are linked to math resources whereas some disparities in psychology are more related to verbal resources. In addition, the results suggest discipline-specific self-efficacy is a motivational attitude associated with course performance in chemistry, physics, and psychology, while discipline-specific interest is only relevant in chemistry. Conclusions: Overall, the findings emphasize that there are demographic differences in post-secondary course performance on average, and academic resources and motivational attitudes help explain these differences. Importantly, the specific findings differ across chemistry, physics, and psychology. Understanding these pathways and how they are similar and different across disciplines within STEM is crucial for developing interventions aimed at attenuating disparities in post-secondary academic outcomes.

Women take qualifying exams and enter medical school at substantially lower levels than predicted by their interest in medical degrees at the end of high school. We examined how science course experiences contribute to gendered attrition in premed using a multicohort data set of 8,253 undergraduates taking the traditional premed sequence of introductory science courses at a public research university between 2008 and 2016. Gendered attrition was not based in academic performance, was specific to high-performing women, and yet was grounded in competency beliefs. The result is that high-performing women often graduate with lower paying, lower status degrees. Motivational interventions in premed science courses will be critical for retaining high-performing women in premed, an important outcome with implications for equity and women's health.

Improved English Language Arts instruction within classrooms and schools that typically serve low‐income, English Language Learners, and Students with Special Needs is important for ensuring all students receive rigorous and inclusive instruction. From the case of a Networked Improvement Community focused on improving instructional practices through student‐centered routines, this research explores the role of humanizing pedagogies in enabling effective student‐centered instructional routines by interviewing 16 teachers who were identified as particularly successful in working with Students of Color. Two major themes and six subthemes were identified from these interviews focused on building relationships as a foundation for humanizing pedagogies and then leveraging those relationships to create a positive classroom culture that fosters increased student engagement and academic risk‐taking with challenging student‐centered routines. These strong teacher–student relationships and student‐centered routines led to improved academic outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the population of emergent bilingual students in the United States continues to grow, it has become increasingly important to ensure that content area instruction is linguistically and culturally inclusive and accessible. Longitudinal survey and state mathematics assessment data were used to examine how the use of students' home language in the English-medium mathematics classroom related to growth in student achievement and attitudes towards mathematics learning. Surveys from 1,274 students attending four middle schools in a Spanish-dominant community reported on teacher and student use of Spanish as well as attitudes towards learning strategies and mathematics. Structural equation modelling revealed that teachers' use of Spanish predicted students' use of Spanish, which was associated with growth in comfort participating in the mathematics classroom. Increased comfort, moreover, was related to growth in mathematics self-efficacy and, in turn, increased interest in mathematics as well as growth on the state mathematics assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender differences in students' physics identity in introductory physics courses can influence students' interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics and their career decisions. Exploring the components that influence these identities is critical to developing a better understanding of the underrepresentation of women in physics courses and physics-related majors. We used a revised version of the physics identity framework developed by Hazari et al. [J. Res. Sci. Teach. 47, 978 (2010)] to investigate whether the relation between gender and physics identity was mediated by motivational factors, such as competency belief, interest, and perceived recognition by others. We surveyed approximately 500 students in introductory level calculus-based physics courses in which 30% of the students are women. Analysis revealed that the relation between gender and physics identity was mediated by students' self-reported motivation at the end of the semester. The model showed that perceived recognition by others played a major role in students' endorsement of physics identity with female students less likely to endorse statements that others perceived them as a "physics person."

Students' intentions to persevere and their career choices in science, technology, engineering, and math fields can be impacted by their physics identities. Women are severely underrepresented at all levels in physics and engineering. Physics in particular has stereotypes about being a discipline for brilliant men. Therefore, it is particularly difficult for women who do not fit the description of a stereotypical physicist to develop a physics identity. Thus, understanding the factors underlying physics identity in introductory physics classrooms is important for creating an equitable and inclusive physics learning environment and has the potential to at least partly explain the current under-representation of women in physics-related majors and careers. In this study, we examined physics identity and several other motivational constructs of male and female students by administering a survey in introductory calculus-based physics courses at a large research university. We found gender differences in how students identify as a physics person and how their perceived recognition from others, such as their teaching assistants or instructors, peers, or family members relates to their physics identities. We tested separate models by gender that examined how different motivational constructs relate to students' physics identities. We found that the perception of being recognized by influential others such as the course instructor or teaching assistants was differentially related to female and male students' physics self-efficacy and sense of belonging in the physics classroom. These findings call for improving the physics learning environments to make them equitable so that all students have a high sense of belonging and self-efficacy and opportunity to develop a strong physics identity.

Ages 10-14 mark a period in which children develop a strong sense of whether science is 'for them,' a time that typically coincides with the start of middle school in the United States and their first exposure to more rigorous science classes and testing. Experiences with science in and out of school can shape children's motivation to choose science careers or participate in voluntary science classes later on, for better or worse. We explore the hypothesis that children who engage in more informal educational science experiences at the start of this period are more likely than their peers to obtain and maintain interest, curiosity, and mastery goals in science (together forming a construct called fascination). We measured 983 children's fascination with science at the beginning and middle of sixth grade. We found that the children who participated in informal science during this time were more likely to maintain or have greater fascination than at the start. These findings held while also controlling for many potentially confounding covariates and are robust across subgroups by gender and race/ethnicity. Further, the effects are largest for those children whose family generally supports their learning.

Curricula, assessments and teacher professional development programmes wield a powerful influence on teaching and learning enactment. Together with the interpretation of those using them, these products mediate the flow of ideas from research to practice. In most countries, those curricula, assessments and professional development programmes that become widely used are created by educational designers. Given their crucial function, it is surprising that the role of educational designers is rarely recognised in the educational research literature, studied empirically or supported in practice. This article argues that educational research stands to (better) support practice at scale when it is attuned to the needs of educational designers. First, mechanisms for knowledge production and use are discussed, including the linkage role played by educational designers in the educational infrastructure of most countries. Then, the importance of understanding and bolstering the linkage between research findings and the work of designers is discussed. Arguments are given for research to better support those who design for scale, along with sample research questions posed by educational designers. In these, a distinction is made between the knowledge designers crave to shape their products (curricula, assessments, teacher professional development) and the knowledge they need to shape the processes through which those products come to fruition. This article closes with a call for educational researchers to explicitly focus their knowledge creation and dissemination efforts towards research consumers with the largest direct effects on teaching and learning: educational designers.

Science learning is most often examined within formal education contexts, even though students spend more of their lives outside of the classroom. Students may interact with scientific phenomena during these out-of-school experiences, providing additional opportunities for learning to take place. Prior studies have found that optional science experiences have positive effects on science knowledge and attitudes. However, these studies do not always account for initial differences between students who are able to participate in many optional experiences and those who cannot. Moreover, many studies focus on high-quality science programs, which may not be representative of the average out-of-school experience. Using a longitudinal dataset of 3,700 6th and 8th grade students in urban and suburban schools from two regions in the United States, the current study investigates the effects of typically occurring optional science experiences during the school year on the development of science knowledge and attitudes. Using propensity score matching, we matched participating and nonparticipating students for characteristics that drive self-selection into these experiences, then analyzed separately for effects of school-related versus home-related science learning experiences. Stable patterns across analytic models reveal growth in science attitudes with both school- and home-related science experiences, but a greater relative decline in science knowledge with school-related science experiences. Thus, typically occurring optional science experiences can influence students' attitudes and knowledge, but the effects can vary by the type of experience that students attend.

Educational robotics programs offer an engaging opportunity to potentially teach core computer science concepts and practices in K-12 classrooms. Here, we test the effects of units with different programming content within a virtual robotics context on both learning gains and motivational changes in middle school (6th-8th grade) robotics classrooms. Significant learning gains were found overall, particularly for groups introduced to content involving program flow, the structural logic of program execution. Relative gains for these groups were particularly high on items that require the transfer of knowledge to dissimilar contexts. Reaching units that included program flow content was also associated with greater maintenance of programming interest when compared with other units. Therefore, our results suggest that explicit instruction in the structural logic of programming may develop deeper transferrable programming knowledge and prevent declines in some motivational factors.

The National Research Council framework for science education and the Next Generation Science Standards have developed a need for additional research and development of curricula that is both technologically model-based and includes engineering practices. This is especially the case for biology education. This paper describes a quasi-experimental design study to test the effectiveness of a model-based curriculum focused on the concepts of natural selection and population ecology that makes use of Excel modeling tools (Modeling Instruction in Biology with Excel, MBI-E). The curriculum revolves around the bio-engineering practice of controlling an invasive species. The study takes place in the Midwest within ten high schools teaching a regular-level introductory biology class. A post-test was designed that targeted a number of common misconceptions in both concept areas as well as representational usage. The results of a post-test demonstrate that the MBI-E students significantly outperformed the traditional classes in both natural selection and population ecology concepts, thus overcoming a number of misconceptions. In addition, implementing students made use of more multiple representations as well as demonstrating greater fascination for science.

A major goal of science education reform is to produce curricula that improve the learning of all students. In this study, the authors explore the use of design-based learning (DBL) to achieve this end. They examined two middle school science classes taught by a teacher who switched for the first time from a standard, scripted inquiry approach to a DBL approach. The researchers were particularly interested in two questions. First, will students previously labeled high and low-achievers become equally engaged by DBL? Second, will the traditional gaps in science achievement associated with race/ethnicity, gender, and socio-economic status be increased or reduced? The findings presented two aspects of learning: engagement and achievement. Engagement has the potential to highlight students' performance in a way that standardized assessment methods do not reveal. The findings of this study suggest that DBL has the potential to increase students' desire to learn, enhance students' success in science class, and increase students' interest in science topics. (Contains 2 tables and 3 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to characterize the ways inwhich psychologists address research hypothesis risk inacademic articles, and to support undergraduates in learningto write about such risk using argument diagramming prewritingactivities. First, 90 articles recently published in topsocial, developmental, and cognitive psychology journalswere examined for their presentation of research hypothesis‘risk’ – an element of the intellectual merit of a research studydenoting the novelty and importance of the study beingconducted. Second, an experimental study was conductedinvolving 82 students in undergraduate research methodsclasses. They were assigned to either argument diagram ortraditional instruction conditions. Research reports werecoded for explicit discussion of risk. Students using argumentdiagramming were significantly more likely to write aboutrisk when compared to matched classes given nodiagramming support

Symbolic and non-symbolic number representations arethought to share common neural substrates. However, recentstudies have shown that the two numerical systems are moredistinct than previously thought. These disparate findings maybe explained by the use of sequential presentations of symbolicand non-symbolic quantities, the use of magnitude-relianttasks, or the use of limited number ranges. We investigatedwhether adults integrate symbolic and non-symbolic numericalinformation during a non-magnitude-based task in whichsymbolic and non-symbolic double-digit numerical informationis shown simultaneously. Participants viewed imagesin which symbolic numerals or letter pairs were superimposedon non-symbolic numerical stimuli and were asked to determinewhether the text was a numeral or letter, ignoring thedots. After perceptual biases were taken into account, participantswere more accurate and faster in their judgments whensymbolic and non-symbolic information matched than wheninformation mismatched, suggesting that adults can integratesymbolic and non-symbolic numerical information

The presentation of economics in introductory courses has been highlighted as potentially exacerbating the underrepresentation of women in economics. The authors study the impact of a gender-neutral change in content and instruction in introductory economics courses intended to increase student engagement. By implementing meaningful applied problems and structured group work, their intervention focuses on the students' perceptions of "what" economics is and "how" economics is used. Using institutional data from 8,727 students over nine semesters, they find that the intervention improved women's grades relative to men's in both Introductory Microeconomics and Macroeconomics and eliminated underperformance by women in Introductory Macroeconomics relative to men at baseline. These effects are evidence that course content and delivery impact the experiences and outcomes of female students in economics education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dialogic peer feedback has been recommended and increasingly used in English as a foreign language writing context, yet the specific effects of peer-to-peer written dialogue about feedback remain under-researched. Using a quasi-experimental design, this empirical study investigated the effects of the presence/absence of written dialogue between the peer feedback provider and receiver on students' provision of feedback, adoption of received feedback, improvements in writing quality, and attitudes towards feedback dialogue across a four-week writing program. The study drew on several data sources including feedback texts, revision texts, a questionnaire survey and monthly reflection journals of forty-one students. Results showed that students involved in the written dialogue demonstrated a generally positive attitude towards it and outperformed those without such a process by generating more accurate adoption, focusing comments to a greater extent on higher-order dimensions of writing (unity, support and coherence), and implementing better revisions. The dialogic process enhanced students' feedback literacy and engagement by improving their understanding of feedback, their linguistic and subject knowledge, and their agentic clarification and negotiation of revisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A major concern in science education involves the under-representation of many groups in science and technology fields, especially by gender (Brotman and Moore, J Res Sci Teach 45:971-1002, 2008; Clark Blickenstaff, Gend Educ 17:369-386, 2006), stemming from an intersection of systemic obstacles (Cantú, Equity Excell Educ 45:472-487, 2012; Rosa and Mensah, Phys Rev Phys Educ Res 12:020113, 2016). Research on persistence of minoritized populations within science trajectories has often highlighted identity as particularly important (Archer et al., Sci Educ 94:617-639, 2010; Barton and Calabrese, Am Educ Res J 50:37-75, 2007; Barton et al., Am Educ Res J 50:37-75, 2013; Merolla and Serpe, Soc Psychol Educ 16:575-597, 2013). Results: This study quantitatively investigated the nature of science identity in over 1300 seventh and ninth grade students from a range of urban US public schools using survey data on science identity, choice preferences, and optional science experiences. Factor analyses validated this conceptualization of science identity as integrating perceived internal and external identity components. Regression analyses revealed the importance of this conceptualization of science identity for driving students' choices at this crucial developmental period. Furthermore, science identity had a complex differential function in supporting students' optional science choices by gender. Conclusions: The novel contribution to the science identity field highlights the specific multi-component ways in which students endorse science identity in middle school and early high school. There was an important finding that science identity has a complex differential function in supporting student's optional science choices by gender. Thus, at this age, developing a strong science identity is especially critical for girls.

We examined the influence of accountability on the consistency of peer ratings and quality of peer feedback by comparing three conditions: only rating accountability, only feedback accountability, or both rating and feedback accountability. From a large undergraduate course, 287 students' peer ratings and peer feedback were coded for rating consistency, comment helpfulness, amount of feedback, and feedback features. Because only 30% of the students accurately perceived their assigned condition, data were analyzed according to the perceived condition. Students who believed their reviewing grade would be influenced by the helpfulness of their feedback not only provided more feedback, but also more criticism, solutions, and localized comments. These students also provided more consistent ratings than those who thought their reviewing grade would be influenced by the consistency of their ratings. These findings indicate that constructing helpful comments could have a broad influence on peer assessment and consistent ratings are grounded in commenting.

The authors examine the effects of undergraduate research experiences on key steps in the path to medical school, considering the case of an undergraduate research experience (URE) offered to first-year students that also might influence performance in large introductory science courses. Using a historical dataset of 15,000 first-year students, logistic and linear regressions were performed to better understand the influence of early UREs on different measures of college success. Immediate effects of an early URE on second-year course performance and very large effects on second-year retention are demonstrated. There also are delayed effects on taking the MCAT and medical school acceptance. Results demonstrate the importance of early UREs and their role in STEM student persistence.

This paper proposes three new measures of components STEM career preferences (affinity, certainty, and goal), and then explores which dimensions of "science learning activation" (fascination, values, competency belief, and scientific sensemaking) are predictive of STEM career preferences. Drawn from the ALES14 dataset, a sample of 2938 sixth and eighth grade middle-school students from 11 schools in two purposefully selected diverse areas (Western Pennsylvania & the Bay Area of California) was used for the analyses presented in this paper. These schools were chosen to represent socio-economic and ethnic diversity. Findings indicate that, overall, youth who are "activated" towards science learning are more likely to have affinity towards STEM careers, certainty about their future career goals, and have identified a specific STEM career goal. However, different dimensions of science learning activation are more strongly correlated with different aspects career preference across different STEM career foci (e.g. science, engineering, technology, health, etc.). Gender, age, minority status, and home resources also have explanatory power. While many results are consistent with prior research, there are also novel results that offer important fodder for future research. Critically, our strategy of measuring affinity towards the specific disciplines that make up STEM, measuring STEM and health career goals separately, and looking at career affinity and career goals separately, offers interesting results and underscores the value of disentangling the conceptual melting pot of what has previously been known as 'career interest.' Study findings also have implications for design of science learning opportunities for youth.

In chemistry, lack of academic preparation and math ability have been offered as explanations as to why women seem to enroll, perform, and graduate at lower levels than men. In this paper, we explore the alternative possibility that the gender gap in chemistry instead originates from differential gender effects of academic factors on students' motivation. Using a sample of approximately 670 students enrolled in a mid-sized university in the United States we conducted: (1) t-tests to understand incoming academic differences between freshman students by gender, (2) regression analysis to determine which academic and attitudinal factors predict success in General Chemistry 1, and (3) a mediation analysis to understand the underlying mechanisms of how academic performance affects students' beliefs about their competency in chemistry, which in turn has an effect on chemistry achievement. We demonstrate the importance of math ability as a contributor to chemistry achievement, but further that ability differences in math are important because they affect students' chemistry competency beliefs. Critically, this link between ability and competency beliefs is stronger for women than men. These results suggest that interventions geared towards improving women's chemistry competency beliefs could have an important influence in improving their achievement in the classroom, and in consequence reduce the gender gap in chemistry

Four principles of cognitive science were used to make systematic revisions in middle school science instructional modules from two kinds of curriculum: one popular textbook series and one popular hands-on series (two modules each). Schools were randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 arms (cognitive science modifications with professional development, active control with professional development, or business-as-usual). Two cohorts of students were followed in each arm for each setting. There were significant benefits of the cognitive science intervention, but the nature of effects varied for the two settings and curricula. For the text-based curriculum, positive effects of cognitive science modifications were concentrated in classrooms with lower proportions of underrepresented minority students. For the hands-on curriculum, there were positive effects that were not linked to school composition. Participation in the active control did not significantly improve student learning. Implications for policy and research are discussed.