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SUMMARY: Saffron spice owes its commercial appreciation to its specific apocarotenoids: crocins, picrocrocin, and safranal. In Crocus sativus, these compounds are biosynthesized from zeaxanthin through oxidative cleavage by the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 2 (CCD2). Transgenic tomato plants expressing CsCCD2 in the fruit, named Tomaffron, accumulate high levels of saffron apocarotenoids despite the low substrate availability for CsCCD2. In the present study, CsCCD2 has been introduced into Xantomato; this tomato variety accumulates high levels of zeaxanthin and β‐carotene in ripe fruit due to a combination of four mutant alleles. Xantomato and Tomaffron genotypes have been combined to optimize apocarotenoid production. The best transgenic lines accumulated 15 and 14 times more crocins and picrocrocin than Tomaffron, alongside a fourfold increase in β‐carotene compared to Xantomato, albeit at a cost in fruit yield. Segregation of the four mutations has been carried out to find the best combination for obtaining high levels of saffron apocarotenoids without adverse effects on fruit yield. Plants harboring the high‐pigmented 3 (hp3) and BETA (BSh) mutations accumulated 6 and 15 times more crocins and picrocrocin than Tomaffron, without observable pleiotropic effects. Additionally, those high levels of saffron apocarotenoids were obtained in fruit accumulating high levels of both lycopene and β‐carotene independently or in combination, suggesting a regulatory role for the apocarotenoids produced and indicating that it is possible to increase the levels of both types of healthy promoting molecules simultaneously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Auxins have an essential role in callus induction. • Application of ABA causes high quality callus. • 3 % of sucrose has a positive effect on callus features. • Modeling by ML methods is required to predict the results. Saffron is a spice derived from its flower (Crocus sativus L.) and it is grown for its medicinal and culinary uses worldwide. Callus is an intermediate stage between explant and in vitro organogenesis. The fate of embryogenesis and organogenesis depends on the quality of the callus. Callogenesis is a complex biological process and is affected by various intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Machine learning (ML), can effectively cope with the time and cost constraints of experiments. In this study, we emphasized the effects of sucrose and phytohormones (auxin, and abscisic acid) on callogenesis with the aid of a machine-learning algorithm. Among the different tested hormone combinations, maximum callus proliferation was observed in the MS media plate containing 3 % sucrose, supplemented with 100 µM ABA, 2 and 4 mg/L NAA, and 2,4-D. A total of eight different ML tools were used to predict the efficacy of inputs on callogenesis. Out of all applied algorithms, Xtreme Gradient Boosting (XGB) and Gradient Boosted Regression (GBR) provide better prediction performance than other models on callus induction and proliferation. SHAP analysis reveals the significance of sucrose, plant growth regulators (NAA, 2,4-D, and ABA), and time on callogenesis. Therefore, machine learning programs can effectively save cost and time by guiding experiments and facilitating optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a valuable geophyte plant and one of the most expensive spices in the world. Recently, the demand for saffron spice has increased in worldwide markets owing to its enormous application and value. However, the production of saffron is limited by the vegetative propagation technique and the limited number of high-quality corms planted. Furthermore, climatic changes, notably increasing temperatures, negatively influence saffron multiplication and growth. Thus, it is important to develop alternative cultivation and propagation techniques for saffron under a controlled environment, which could ensure an increase in saffron yield and avoid the negative impact of climatic changes. The present study aimed to develop an alternative method for vegetative propagation of Crocus sativus under controlled conditions. The effect of different cross-cuttings, including basal cuttings (BCs) and top-to-bottom cuttings (CTBs), was evaluated on shoot, leaf, flower, and daughter corm production. All the growth parameters examined were influenced by the cutting treatment applied. The results showed that the highest number of shoots formed was obtained by BCs and CTBs, with an average of 6.68 and 5.47 shoots per corm, respectively, compared to the control with an average of 2.70 shoots per corm. The cutting treatment positively affected the formation of daughter corms in which, the high mean number of corms recorded was obtained by the BC treatment. Meanwhile, the lower size of the daughter corms was obtained after the cross-cutting treatment. This is the first report that provides an alternative propagation for saffron using a controlled environment, which could help to improve the production of saffron. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cultivation of Crocus sativus L. to obtain the saffron spice generates a large amount of biowaste, constituted mainly by the flower's tepals. The aim of this work was to evaluate the antioxidant and dermo-protective effect of a complex methanolic extract of C. sativus tepals. The extract's major phenolic content was analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization, coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS). Then, the antioxidant in vitro activity of the extract was studied and related to their chemical composition. Likewise, the effect on intracellular ROS levels in HepG2 and Hs27 cell culture was determined in normal culture and under hydrogen-peroxide-induced oxidative stress. Finally, tyrosinase, hyaluronidase, collagenase, elastase, and xanthine oxidase assays were carried out to determine the dermo-protective capacity of the extract. The high polyphenol content, including flavonoids and anthocyanins, explains the antioxidant effect of the extract both in vitro and in culture assays. The extract has a significant and remarkable protective capacity against oxidative stress induced in culture of the two studied cell lines. It is also remarkable in its ability to inhibit hyaluronidase, tyrosinase, and xanthine oxidase. Results pointed out this biowaste extract as a promising ingredient in the composition of cosmetics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrated nutrient management is an environment friendly approach of plant nutrition being used for crop productivity and improvement in soil quality on sustainable basis. A three-year multi-location experiment was conducted to estimate the spice quality of saffron subjected to the integration of organic and inorganic nitrogen sources. At each location, the experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design. The treatments were T1 = control (without organic/inorganic N source/amendment); T2 = Full recommended nitrogen (i.e. urea fertilizer @ equivalent to 100 kg N ha−1; UN100); T3 = Poultry manure (PM) @ equivalent to 100 kg total N ha−1 (i.e. PM100); T4 = Farm yard manure (FYM) @ equivalent to 100 kg total N ha−1 (i.e. FYM100); T5 = PM50+FYM50; T6 = UN75 + PM25; T7 = UN50 + PM50; T8 = UN25 + PM75; T9 = UN75 + FYM25; T10 = UN50 + FYM50; T11 = UN25 + FYM75 and T12 = UN50 + PM25+ FYM25. Among treatments, poultry manure (100%) and urea nitrogen with poultry manure (UN50 + PM50) significantly affected the quality attributes of saffron. On the other hand, among sites, the crocin, picrocrocin and saffranal contents were in order of Khaigala (23.81% crocin, 20.01% picrocrocin and 0.27% saffranal) >Trarkhel (19.04% crocin, 16.99% picrocrocin and 0.25% saffranal) and > Abbaspur (17.80% crocin, 15.45% picrocrocin and 0.23% saffranal). Similarly, among years, the crocin, picrocrocin and saffranal contents were significantly higher in the third year compared to the first and second year. In conclusion, the integration of organic nitrogen sources with inorganic nitrogen has the potential to improve saffron quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron in the Middle Ages was the most precious spice, a luxury good with an important international trade. Italy was the main producer in Europe, together with Spain and, to a lesser extent, France; Italian saffron was among the most valuable and sought-after qualities. In the Peninsula, the cultivation of saffron was practiced in some territorial contexts, including Apulia, the second center in the Kingdom of Naples after the Abruzzi. This contribution will deal with the cultivation and trade of this spice in Terra d'Otranto between the 15th and 16th centuries. The purpose of the paper is to show the importance assumed by saffron in the economy of this province, a periphery at the center of international commercial circuits, a crop often marginalized by historical research, to the advantage of olive growing. Different sources will be used (fiscal, notarial, historical-geographical, commercial) to illustrate the spread of crocus cultivation and its presence on foreign markets thanks to the presence of foreign merchants, especially Germans. After examining the phenomenon in the province, Casalnuovo in the 16th century was taken into consideration as a case study, for which some notarial deeds were examined from which interesting details emerge. Ultimately, the fiscal aspects of the saffron trade were exposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Handly and easy-to-use optical instrumentation is very important for food safety monitoring, as it provides the possibility to assess law and health compliances at every stage of the food chain. In particular, the Surface-enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) method appears highly promising because the intrinsic drawback of Raman spectroscopy, i.e., the natural weakness of the effect and, in turn, of the signal, is overcome thanks to the peculiar interaction between laser light and plasmonic excitations at the SERS substrate. This fact paved the way for the widespread use of SERS sensing not only for food safety but also for biomedicine, pharmaceutical process analysis, forensic science, cultural heritage and more. However, the current technological maturity of the SERS technique does not find a counterpart in the recognition of SERS as a routine method in compliance protocols. This is mainly due to the very scattered landscape of SERS substrates designed and tailored specifically for the targeted analyte. In fact, a very large variety of SERS substrates were proposed for molecular sensing in different environments and matrices. This review presents the advantages and perspectives of SERS sensing in food safety. The focus of the survey is limited to specific analytes of interest for producers, consumers and stakeholders in Oltrepò Pavese, a definite regional area that is located within the district of Pavia in the northern part of Italy. Our attention has been addressed to (i) glyphosate in rice fields, (ii) histamine in a world-famous local product (wine), (iii) tetracycline, an antibiotic often detected in waste sludges that can be dangerous, for instance in maize crops and (iv) Sudan dyes—used as adulterants—in the production of saffron and other spices, which represent niche crops for Oltrepò. The review aims to highlight the SERS performance for each analyte, with a discussion of the different methods used to prepare SERS substrates and the different reported limits of detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron is a spice that is obtained by dehydrating the stigmas of the Crocus sativus flower. Iran is the country that produces the largest amount of saffron, exceeding 90% of world production. Currently, there is a growing medicinal use which implies that there is more demand than supply worldwide, in turn, a large amount of labor is required to obtain it; for these two reasons, it reaches a high price in the international market. This demand is due to the high concentration of apocarotenoid metabolites that it biosynthesizes. In this work, the content of these metabolites of saffron from six production areas of Iran and neighbouring countries infected with saffron latent virus (SaLV) and dehydrated at two temperatures is compared. The corms of the six provenances were planted in a homogeneous plot and the stigmas analyzed were those of the second year after planting. The analysis showed that corms do not completely retain the memory of their original origin. In general, the ratio of the sum of mmol/kg of HTCC derivatives to the sum of the mmol of crocins is greater than two. This implies that the biosynthesis of saffron apocarotenoids due to the degradation of β-carotene towards HTCC is more important than that of zeaxanthin formation, which later gives HTCC and crocetin dialdehyde. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sleep quality is defined as an individual's consent to sleep experience. Poor sleep quality has important adverse health outcomes. There are drugs to treat sleep disorders but consumption of these drugs is accompanied by adverse effects whereas herbal treatments have fewer side effects. Saffron is spice obtained from Crocus sativus flower. Several articles have been done on its effects on the quality of sleep and its safety. This review for the first time critically evaluates effect of saffron on sleep quality improvement. Method: The search technique aims to get all related published data-based up to 2022 articles. PubMed, Central, Google Scholar, and Scopus were examined. Only full reports were evaluated (abstracts were excluded). The first screening was done by title and abstract. Then full text of articles was read and irrelevant articles were removed. Duplicate articles were also removed by Endnote. By using Cochrane risk of bias tool assessment, a quality score based on probability of bias was given. Methodological characteristics were also evaluated using the criteria of Stevinson and Ernst. Result: In the systematic review, 5 randomized clinical trials with 379 participants from 3 countries were identified. In placebo-comparison trials, saffron contains a large treatment. Conclusion: It seems that saffron has a beneficial influence on duration and quality of sleep. Saffron, crocin, and safranal induce hypnotic effects by increasing the duration of sleep. Research conducted so far provides initial support and safety for use of saffron to improve sleep quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The saffron crocus (Crocus sativus) is a flowering plant of the Iridaceae family A spice called saffron is obtained from the dried red stigmas of the flower and is used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, perfumery and textile industries. It has been grown in our country for a short time, but the areas with this culture are rapidly increasing. To date, no scientific research has been conducted on this type of plant in our country. In the present article, we summarize scientific observations on the influence of climatic factors, temperature, and air humidity on the honey qualities of the saffron crocus. We determined the amount of nectar and its sugar content, the amount of individual pollen from one flower, and the size and shape of the pollen grains in the pollen. We tracked the flowering period and the number of flowers against the age of the planted bulbs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the progression of IBD therapy is controlled with chemical drugs and biological therapies, healing results cannot yet be achieved, along with the inevitable side effects. As a result, a variety of research have focused on exploring novel therapies and found that natural products can serve as promising therapeutic agents for IBD through their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effect. Recently, the chemical constituents of the main saffron processing bio-product, the petals of C. sativus, have attracted the attention of researchers. We compare the anti-inflammatory effect of the Saffron Stigma Extract (SSE), Saffon Petal Extract (SPE) and Petals/Stigma Extract (SPE/SSE) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human Caco-2 cell monolayers by analyzing FBW7/signaling IkBa, upstream of the activation of inducible molecules such as iNOS and COX-2. The results of this study provide further support for the possible use of SPE in medicine, raising awareness of the potential of the waste product generated in the production of the saffron spice. Compared to the SPE/SSE is not able to attenuate the pro-inflammatory response, and further investigations should be undertaken to understand what kind of negative interaction is triggered between the two components of the spice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron spices are composed of dehydrated stigmas of Crocus sativus L. A large amount of bio-residues (stamens, tepals, and stigmas) is generated during the production of this spice (~92 g of bio-residues per 100 g of flowers). These bio-residues are usually discarded losing the chance to obtain interesting bioactive compounds from them. In this work, we use the saffron bio-residues as possible source of natural bioactive compounds. Different extraction conditions were applied obtaining hydrophilic and lipophilic components. The antioxidant activity of the bioactive compounds in the different conditions were analysed using the ABTS method developed by our team. Furthermore, the total content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids present in the bio-residues were estimated. We demonstrated that bio-residues contain a high amount of both phenolic and flavonoid compounds with a strong antioxidant potential effect. Moreover, we compared the antioxidant activities of saffron bio-residues (obtained from stamens, tepals, and stigmas). The extraction was made at two different pH (4.5 and 7.5) and measured (antioxidant activity, flavonoid and phenol content) at pH 7.5. Another extraction done at pH 7.5 measured antioxidant activity, flavonoid and phenol content at time 0 (t = 0 h) and after 24 h (t = 24 h) at pH 4.5 and 7.5. We point out that bioresidues contain antioxidant activity (up to 8.42 µmoles Trolox/100 g DW), total phenols (up to 111.91 µmoles EG/100 g DW) and total flavonoids (up to 109.25 µmoles QE/100 g DW) as bioactive compounds. The applicability of bio-residues as additives is promising, both in the pharmaceutical and in the food industry as nutraceuticals and phytogenics. The variability in pH and the colour originating from it must be taken into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus L., which has a special aroma, colour and odour influencing positively its economic value. In this context, ten saffron ecotypes were screened for their biochemical composition and antioxidant activity. The samples were also analysed using GC‐MS and LC‐MS to determine their content of volatile and phenolic compounds, respectively. The results revealed statistically significant differences among samples based on moisture (9.09%‐11.23%), total phenols (31.62‐62.71 mg EAG/g), total flavonoids (23.02‐40.02 mg ER/mg), total carotenoids (66.12‐155.05 μg/g), picrocrocin (88.99‐121.53), crocin (137.44‐228.39) and safranal (26.56‐53.04). The radical scavenging activity ranged from 17.09% to 29.53% for DPPH assay, and oscillated from 0.128 mmol AAE/g to 0.239 mmol AAE/g for ABTS test, while the ferric reducing antioxidant potency (FRAP) varied from 0.974 to 1.989 mmol Fe2+/g. Gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) analysis identified 66 volatile compounds, among which the Safranal and Isophorone were the most abondant. The ES1 from Taliouine recorded a very distinct volatile composition compared to the others ecotypes with 22 authentic volatile compounds. Moreover, liquid chromatography‐ mass spectrometry (LC‐MS) analysis revealed 14 phenolic compounds with picrocrocin and crocin were found to be the major compounds. The principal component analysis classified the investigated ecotypes into two mean distinctive sets with ES1 and ES9 were distinguished as a single items. The α‐pinene, β‐pinene, limonene, anethole, acetic acid, ketoisophorone, isophorone, safranal, thymoquinone, total flavonoids, FRAP and total carotenoids, are the main discriminant variables. The two‐dimensional analysis of the clustered heatmaps divided showed a relatively similar patterns as the principal component analysis (PCA) and confirmed the singularity of the sample ES1 based on its particular volatile profile dominated mainly by α‐terpinyl acetate, methyleugenol, copaene, anethole, limonene, methyl‐cyclopentane, which were not identified in the other samples even at minor levels. These findings herein found revealed the high quality of Moroccan saffron, which is very important for the species breeding and valorization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of novel antimicrobial agents able to inhibit or kill food-borne bacteria or to interrupt the onset of food spoilage. Crocus sativus L. petals, typically considered as waste obtained from saffron spice production, could be a source of natural bioactive compounds to be used as food preservatives. The purpose of this work was to investigate the antibacterial properties of two hydroalcoholicsaffron petal extracts obtained by maceration (SPEA) and by ultrasonic bath (SPEB) methods. The main polyphenols identified in both extracts were gallic and chlorogenic acids, representing almost 70% of the phenolic fraction monitored. The antibacterial activity was studied by the agar well-diffusion method, against food-borne pathogenic and spoilage bacteria. Both extracts showed activity mainly against Gram-positive bacteria, in particular those belonging to the Clostridiaceae family (C. perfringens, C. botulinum and C. difficile), with inhibition zone diameters ranging from 13 to 18 mm. The antibacterial properties against Clostridia were further analyzed, determining MIC and MBC and performing a time-kill test. SPEA showed lower MIC/MBC values (250 mg/mL) compared to SPEB (500 mg/mL), suggesting that it could be more active against the assayed strains, probably because of its higher content of gallic acid. SPEA and SPEB, tested at a concentration of 1 × MIC, showed bactericidal activity against C. perfringens, C. botulinum and C. difficile and these results suggest that saffron petals could represent a valuable natural alternative source to conventional preservatives. Further investigations are needed to evaluate possible applications in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron is a spice obtained from the drying process of the stigmas of the flower Crocus sativus Linnaeus. It is well known that the organoleptic characteristics of this spice are closely linked to the production area and harvesting year. The present work aims to evaluate whether saffron samples produced in different years and origins present sensibly different crocin profiles. To achieve this goal, 120 saffron samples were harvested between 2016 and 2020 in four different Italian areas. The crocins were analysed, identified, and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–ESI–MS/MS) in multiple reaction monitoring mode (MRM). Subsequently, ANOVA–simultaneous component analysis (ASCA) was used to evaluate whether the origin and annuity significantly affected the composition of the crocins. ASCA confirmed the relevance of these effects. Eventually, soft independent modelling by class analogy (SIMCA) models were created for each of the four different origins. Mixtures of saffron from different areas were also prepared to test the robustness of the models. SIMCA provided satisfying results; in fact, models provided 100% sensitivity for three origins (Cascia, Sardinia, and Città della Pieve) on the external test set (48 samples) and 88% (sensitivity on the external test set) for the Spoleto class. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Saffron is a spice derived from the Crocus sativus L. with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. This study aims to systematically review the systematic reviews (SRs) investigating the clinical neuropsychotropic effects of saffron. Materials and Methods: The protocol of this SR was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42021268446). Scopus, ISI Web of Science, Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and PROSPERO were searched up to June 6, 2021, to find SRs investigating the neuropsychotropic effects of saffron. The primary outcome was a report on whether or not saffron was effective in each study. AMSTAR was checked for the included reviews. Results: Twenty-three studies were reviewed with a mean AMSTAR score of 6.08 (ranging from 1 to 10). Thirteen SRs investigated the effects of saffron on depression. Six of the SRs studied its impact on sexual dysfunction. Each of the anxiety and cognitive disorders was discussed in three distinct reviews. Furthermore, possible effects of saffron on some other disorders, like premenstrual syndrome, postpartum depression, sleep disorders, and snacking behavior, have been reported. Conclusion: Saffron is beneficial, safe, and tolerable in treating the mentioned neurological and psychiatric disorders. Further high-quality, large-scale studies are recommended to rectify the shortcomings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current production system of saffron spice generates hundreds of tons of waste. Thus, the aim of this study was to value both saffron and its floral by-products as a source of natural bioactive extracts, studying the in vitro antioxidant capacity, the composition of the volatile fraction by GC-MS/MS, and the determination of crocetins esters by HPLC-PDA. Saffron stigmas and floral by-products showed a high content of polyphenols and different antioxidant properties. Floral bio-residues (tepals, stamens, and styles) presented a high concentration of anthocyanins, and stigmas had high levels of flavonoids, β-carotene, and total crocins. In stigmas, 25 different volatile components were found, with safranal the most relevant. Floral by-products volatile composition consisted of 55 compounds with varying amounts depending on the drying treatment; all the samples presented acetic acid, 2(5H)-furanone, and phenylethyl alcohol. Therefore, saffron stigmas and flower by-products represent a sustainable source of bioactive ingredients for innovative healthy food formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document contains summaries of three different articles. The first article discusses the potential of new quinolinium salts as antiproliferative agents in cancer treatment. The article highlights the challenges of current chemotherapy treatments, such as toxicity and drug resistance, and proposes the use of tetrahydroisoquinoline derivatives to inhibit the interaction between hyaluronic acid and CD44, which can promote tumor cell growth. The synthesis and biological evaluation of these compounds are described, with the aim of developing new compounds with antitumor properties.The second article focuses on the anticancer potential of Crocus sativus corms (saffron) and melatonin combination in breast and colon cancer. The article explains that saffron production generates significant by-products, including corms that are unsuitable for commercial sale. The researchers studied the anticancer activity of these corms alone and in combination with melatonin, finding that they exhibit significant potential against breast and colon cancers. The study suggests that exploring the combination of saffron corms with other natural products presents a promising approach to cancer treatment while minimizing industrial impact on the environment.The third article discusses different extraction treatments for the mRNA contained in the lipid nanoparticle of the Comirnaty® COVID-19 vaccine. The article explains that a new generation of vaccines based on single-stranded mRNA has emerged in recent years. The researchers evaluate various extraction methods for the mRNA in the vaccine, providing insights into the composition and stability [Extracted from the article]

The saffron flower stigmas are used for the saffron spice production while the remaining saffron floral by-products, that are a valuable source of natural bioactive compounds, remain underutilized. The aim of this study was to evaluate the microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) through response surface methodology to obtain high value-added compounds from saffron tepals as ingredients with potential application in the food, pharmaceutical and/or cosmetic industries. A central composite design was applied to optimize process variables: temperature, time and ethanol solvent concentration. Extracts were characterized in terms of total phenolic and total flavonoid content, and antioxidant capacity (ORAC and HOSC assays), being the maximum values obtained: 126.20 ± 2.99 mg GAE/g dry matter; 8.05 ± 0.11 mg CE/g dry matter; 6219 ± 246 μmol TEAC/dry matter; 3131 ± 205 μmol TEAC/dry matter, respectively. Results indicated that the optimal extraction conditions were the combination of low temperature (25 °C)—high extraction time (5 min) using ethanol as solvent (100%). MAE revealed to be an efficient technique to isolate bioactive compounds from saffron floral by-products with a low energy footprint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spice saffron (Crocus sativus) has anticancer activity in several human tissues, but the molecular mechanisms underlying its potential therapeutic effects are poorly understood. We investigated the impact of safranal, a small molecule secondary metabolite from saffron, on the HCC cell line HepG2 using untargeted metabolomics (HPLC–MS) and transcriptomics (RNAseq). Increases in glutathione disulfide and other biomarkers for oxidative damage contrasted with lower levels of the antioxidants biliverdin IX (139-fold decrease, p = 5.3 × 105), the ubiquinol precursor 3-4-dihydroxy-5-all-trans-decaprenylbenzoate (3-fold decrease, p = 1.9 × 10−5), and resolvin E1 (−3282-fold decrease, p = 45), which indicates sensitization to reactive oxygen species. We observed a significant increase in intracellular hypoxanthine (538-fold increase, p = 7.7 × 10−6) that may be primarily responsible for oxidative damage in HCC after safranal treatment. The accumulation of free fatty acids and other biomarkers, such as S-methyl-5′-thioadenosine, are consistent with safranal-induced mitochondrial de-uncoupling and explains the sharp increase in hypoxanthine we observed. Overall, the dual omics datasets describe routes to widespread protein destabilization and DNA damage from safranal-induced oxidative stress in HCC cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron petal was dried from 85% to 10% moisture content with fixed layer bed (FLB), semi fluidized bed (SFB) and fully fluidized bed (FFB) at temperatures (t) of 35, 45 and 55 °C. The airflow (v) of FLB, SFB and FFB were 0.2, 0.7 and 1.7 ms-1, respectively. When the t/v ratio increased in each method, the dehydration time decreased considerably. The dehydration times and drying rates of saffron petal for FLB (v = 0.2 ms-1& t = 35 °C) and FFB (v = 1.7 ms-1& t = 55 °C) were "570 & 30 min" and "0.13 & 2.50 gH2O/min", respectively. When the airflow increased from 0.2 to 0.7 and then to 1.7 ms-1, the phenolic, anthocyanin & antioxidant contents of dried saffron petal improved to about 6, 15 & 15% and then to 15, 20 & 42%, respectively. However, by increasing air temperature from 35 to 45°, their phenolic and anthocyanin contents did not change significantly. However, sharp reductions of 20, 23 and 41% respectively were noticed in phenolic and anthocyanin contents and antioxidant activities of saffron petal when the drying temperature exceeded 45 and reached to 55 °C. Overall, the fresh saffron petal dehydrated at 45 °C with FFB had the highest phenolic and anthocyanin contents and antioxidant activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application of the Quality by Design (QbD) concept to extracts obtained from Crocus sativus perianth with potential anticancer activity will ensure the safety, efficiency, and quality control of the entire technological process, as well as determine the critical factors affecting the quality of extracts. Potentially critical points of the production of the plant extracts, including the cultivation and processing of the plant materials, the extraction process, and the choice of solvents, were identified using the Ishikawa diagram and FMEA risk assessment methods as well as the corrective actions proposed. The Herbal Chemical Marker Ranking System (HerbMars) approach was used to justify the Q-markers choice of Crocus, which takes into account bioavailability, pharmacological activity, and the presence of the selected standard. An experimental design (DoE) was used to assess the influence of potentially critical factors on the efficiency of the compound extraction from raw materials with water or ethanol. The presence of 16 compounds in Crocus perianth was determined by HPLC and their quantitative assessment was established. Selected compounds (ferulic acid, mangiferin, crocin, rutin, isoquercitrin) can be used for the quality control of Crocus perianth. In addition, the stigmas from the Volyn region met the requirements of ISO 3632 for saffron as a spice (category I). The cytotoxic activity against melanoma (IGR39) and triple-negative breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) cell lines of the hydroethanolic extract of C. sativus perianth was significantly more pronounced than the water extract, probably due to the chemical composition of the constituent components. The results show that the QbD approach is a powerful tool for process development for the production of quality herbal drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron crocus (Crocus sativus) is a male-sterile, triploid flower crop, and source of the spice and colorant saffron. For over three millennia, it was cultivated across the Mediterranean, including ancient Greece, Persia, and other cultures, later spreading all over the world. Despite saffron crocus' early omnipresence, its origin has been the matter of a century-old debate, in terms of area and time as well as parental species contribution. While remnants of the ancient arts, crafts, and texts still provide hints on its origin, modern genetics has the potential to efficiently follow these leads, thus shedding light on new possible lines of descent. In this review, we follow ancient arts and recent genetics to trace the evolutionary origin of saffron crocus. We focus on the place and time of saffron domestication and cultivation, and address its presumed autopolyploid origin involving cytotypes of wild Crocus cartwrightianus. Both ancient arts from Greece, Iran, and Mesopotamia as well as recent cytogenetic and comparative next-generation sequencing approaches point to saffron's emergence and domestication in ancient Greece, showing how both disciplines converge in tracing its origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) spice, traditionally used as food additive for its coloring and flavoring properties, has shown great potential to promote health. Among the main constituents of saffron spice, safranal has been shown to alleviate and prevent gastric disorders, cardiovascular diseases and to exert anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, antidepressive and neuroprotective activities. In this work, we recovered picrocrocin from saffron residues and efficiently biotransformed it using a halo-thermophilic β-glucosidase from Alicyclobacillus acidophilus (Aac), which gave the corresponding aglycone 4-hydroxysafranal with complete conversion (>99%) and rapid reaction times (15 min). After a thermic treatment, safranal was obtained in excellent yields. To make the process even more efficient and sustainable a one-pot, 2-step chemo-enzymatic transformation was set up, yielding a marketable natural safranal as final product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an autumnal herbaceous triploid plant; it is the source of saffron spice, recognized as the most expensive spice in the world. In this study, genetic diversity among 14 saffron accessions collected from different ancestral geographic areas in Morocco, Greece and France were assessed using inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) markers system. Ten ISSR primers were amplified into a total of 143 fragments, of which 44.05 % are polymorphic with an average of 6.3 polymorphic fragments per each primer and average of polymorphic information content (PIC) of 0.236. ISSR markers proved to be a powerful tool for assessment of genetic diversity among saffron accessions. Cluster analysis using unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA), based on Jaccard's similarity coefficient and supported by the principal coordinate analysis (PCoA), divided the studied accessions into three major groups, and showed that genetic distance is independent of geographical distance. In this paper, we report for the first time the level of genetic diversity among Moroccan saffron; this information allows an unequivocal development of a suitable approach for the conservation of C. sativus germplasm and reduce its genetic erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Saffron tepals are a by-product from the processing of Crocus sativus flowers, whose dried stigmas (saffron spice) are widely used both in the food and health sectors. Saffron tepals are rich in polyphenols, particularly flavonol glycosides and anthocyanins, which are considered to be potent antioxidants. Enzyme-assisted extraction of polyphenols offers several advantages in comparison to conventional methods. The present study evaluated the efficiency of enzyme-assisted extraction as a green technology for recovery of polyphenols from saffron tepals. Materials and methods. The by-product was obtained from a saffron producer in the region of Kozani, Greece. A simplex-centroid design was applied to select the enzyme preparations mixture required for aqueous extraction of polyphenolic antioxidants from dried saffron tepals. In addition, the parameters of enzymatic hydrolysis, enzyme dose and incubation time were optimised using response surface methodology. Results. The binary combination, comprising cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic preparations (1:1), led to the highest yield of total polyphenols (30.9 g GAE/kg saffron tepals) and total anthocyanins (2.0 g CGE/kg saffron tepals), reaching 45% and 38% higher values, respectively, as compared to the control sample (without enzymatic treatment). The experimental data regarding optimisation of the extraction conditions were fitted to second-degree regression models (R2 = 0.85-0.98). Conclusion. The newly developed process may be applied as an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional organic solvent extraction, thus supporting valorisation of the saffron industry by-product. The polyphenols recovered could be used as biologically active substances or as natural food ingredients, replacing synthetic additives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crocins and picrocrocin are glycosylated apocarotenoids responsible, respectively, for the color and the unique taste of the saffron spice, known as red gold due to its high price. Several studies have also shown the health-promoting properties of these compounds. However, their high costs hamper the wide use of these metabolites in the pharmaceutical sector. We have developed a virus-driven system to produce remarkable amounts of crocins and picrocrocin in adult Nicotiana benthamiana plants in only two weeks. The system consists of viral clones derived from tobacco etch potyvirus that express specific carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) enzymes from Crocus sativus and Buddleja davidii. Metabolic analyses of infected tissues demonstrated that the sole virus-driven expression of C. sativus CsCCD2L or B. davidii BdCCD4.1 resulted in the production of crocins, picrocrocin and safranal. Using the recombinant virus that expressed CsCCD2L, accumulations of 0.2% of crocins and 0.8% of picrocrocin in leaf dry weight were reached in only two weeks. In an attempt to improve apocarotenoid content in N. benthamiana , co-expression of CsCCD2L with other carotenogenic enzymes, such as Pantoea ananatis phytoene synthase (PaCrtB) and saffron β-carotene hydroxylase 2 (BCH2), was performed using the same viral system. This combinatorial approach led to an additional crocin increase up to 0.35% in leaves in which CsCCD2L and PaCrtB were co-expressed. Considering that saffron apocarotenoids are costly harvested from flower stigma once a year, and that Buddleja spp. flowers accumulate lower amounts, this system may be an attractive alternative for the sustainable production of these appreciated metabolites. • A plant virus-derived system to produce apocarotenoids, such as crocins, picrocrocin and safranal, in Nicotiana benthamiana. • Accumulation of 0.2% crocins and 0.8% picrocrocin after viral expression of Crocus sativus carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase. • Co-expression of Pantoea ananatis phytoene synthase increases crocins accumulation to 0.35% dry weight. • Expression system with commercial interest because apocarotenoids are costly harvested from saffron stigma once per year. • This work represents the first production of the highly appreciated crocins and picrocrocin in a heterologous system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron, derived from the stigma of Crocus sativus, is not only a valuable traditional Chinese medicine but also the expensive spice and dye. Its yield and quality are seriously influenced by its flowering transition. However, the molecular regulatory mechanism of the flowering transition in C. sativus is still unknown. In this study, we performed morphological, physiological and transcriptomic analyses using apical bud samples from C. sativus during the floral transition process. Morphological results indicated that the flowering transition process could be divided into three stages: an undifferentiated period, the early flower bud differentiation period, and the late flower bud differentiation period. Sugar, gibberellin (GA3), auxin (IAA) and zeatin (ZT) levels were steadily upregulated, while starch and abscisic acid (ABA) levels were gradually downregulated. Transcriptomic analysis showed that a total of 60 203 unigenes were identified, among which 19 490 were significantly differentially expressed. Of these, 165 unigenes were involved in flowering and were significantly enriched in the sugar metabolism, hormone signal transduction, cell cycle regulatory, photoperiod and autonomous pathways. Based on the above analysis, a hypothetical model for the regulatory networks of the saffron flowering transition was proposed. This study lays a theoretical basis for the genetic regulation of flowering in C. sativus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reduction of the consumption of sodium salt (i.e., NaCl) is widely recommended for the prevention/treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Many substitutes of sodium salt have been proposed, although their technical requirements, aptitudes and/or sensory attributes might not be yet attractive enough for effective sodium replacement in the diet. The objective of this review is to give a critical overview of the use of plant-derived seasoning products in order to reduce salt content in foods. For that, we have compiled knowledge about the sensory properties and health benefits of main classes of dietary plants, herbs, spices, and their blends that have been previously categorized in the literature as salt replacers. We also report data about grape-derived extracts that are currently seen as promising food ingredients for this purpose. Several plant-derived seasonings (i.e., garlic, deadnettle family, herb blends, saffron and hot spices) have demonstrated good consumer acceptability when used as sodium replacers. In contrast, there is still scarce information about the sensory impact of grape-derived products when incorporated into food/recipes. Bibliography also shows that these plant-derived seasonings seem to have positive effects ameliorating biomarkers of hypertension, which makes them an interesting approach to decrease sodium salt consumption in hypertensive individuals. Future trends in low sodium diet with seasoning incorporation should also pay attention to the acceptability at the different stages of the food product/recipe development. Moreover, there is a need for well-designed and easy consumer analysis, that could be achieve by incorporating quantitative consumer sensory techniques that are currently available such as Just About Right Scale, Check All That Apply questions or napping technique. • Currently, there is no completely efficient substitute for sodium salt. • The use of herbs, spices or blends confers new tastes and/or tactile sensations that may mask the absence of sodium. • New ingredients, such as grape pomace derivatives, have emerged as an interesting approach. • More sensory studies are needed in seeking for efficient salt substitutes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Saffron inoculated with Rhizophagus intraradices produced a spice richer in safranal. • R. intraradices modulated the transcription of CCD2 and UGT709G1. • The expression of the genes for SLs and ABA biosynthesis did not change. • A biofertilizing effect was observed in the corms at flowering. Crocus sativus L. (saffron) has been propagated for millennia to produce the precious spice saffron from the red stigmas. The inebriant organoleptic and bioactive properties mainly depend on the content of crocins (dyeing capacity), picrocrocin (flavor), and safranal (aroma), apocarotenoids deriving from zeaxanthin. In this study, an integrated biochemical and molecular analysis was carried out on fresh saffron stigmas to investigate the influence exerted by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) Rhizophagus intraradices on the production of the main saffron apocarotenoids responsible for the properties of the spice. Since mineral enrichment due to AM symbiosis has been related to changes in the secondary metabolism of plants, the mineral content of saffron corms at flowering was also analyzed. Rare arbuscules (AMF trade structures) were found in mycorrhized plants. However, the expression of D27, CCD7 , and NCED involved in the synthesis of strigolactones (SLs) and abscisic acid (ABA), which promote AM symbiosis, did not change in the stigmas. The transcription of β-LYC and CCD4a/b was not affected by AMF, whereas that of CCD2 , which encodes the key enzyme producing major apocarotenoids, was upregulated. The crocin content was reduced in treated plants even if the expression of ALDH, UGT74AD1 , and UGT91P3 , involved in crocin synthesis, did not change. Conversely, UGT709G1 , implicated in picrocrocin synthesis, was overexpressed in the inoculated plants, thus the safranal content was increased in the spice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crocus sativus is generally considered the source of saffron spice which is rich in apo-carotenoid compounds such as crocins, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal, which possess effective pharmacological activities. However, little is known about the exact genes involved in apo-carotenoid biosynthesis in saffron and the potential mechanism of specific accumulation in the stigma. In this study, we integrated stigmas at different developmental stages to perform in-depth transcriptome and dynamic metabolomic analyses to discover the potential key catalytic steps involved in apo-carotenoid biosynthesis in saffron. A total of 61 202 unigenes were obtained, and 28 regulators and 32 putative carotenogenic genes were captured after the co-expression network analysis. Moreover, 15 candidate genes were predicted to be closely related to safranal and crocin production, in which one aldehyde dehydrogenase (Cs ALDH3) was validated to oxidize crocetin dialdehyde into crocetin and a crocetin-producing yeast strain was created. In addition, a new branch pathway that catalyses the conversion of geranyl-geranyl pyrophosphate to copalol and ent -kaurene by the class II diterpene synthase Cs CPS1 and three class I diterpene synthases Cs EKL1/2/3 were investigated for the first time. Such gene to apo-carotenoid landscapes illuminate the synthetic charactersistics and regulators of apo-carotenoid biosynthesis, laying the foundation for a deep understanding of the biosynthesis mechanism and metabolic engineering of apo-carotenoids in plants or microbes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Crocus sativus, known as saffron crocus, is best known for the spice saffron. Saffron use spans more than 3500 years, however, its toxicity on neonates during lactation has not yet evaluated. Objectives: This study was aimed to examine the acute toxicity of saffron on adult mice and its nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity on neonates of lactating mothers that used saffron during lactation. Materials and Methods: In this experimental study, following acute toxicity evaluation, 32 pregnant mice were randomly designated into four equal groups. Following delivery, the mothers of groups 1 to 4 were administered orally (by gavage) normal saline (control group), 500, 1000 or 2000 mg/kg/day of saffron for three weeks, respectively. The newborns' kidney and liver parameters were assessed at the end of the study for possible nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity evaluation. The kidney and liver tissue samples of newborns were histopathologically studied after staining with Hematoxylin & Eosin. Data were analyzed using ANOVA and Scheffe's tests Results: The LD50 value of saffron was calculated to be 4120±556 mg/kg in mice. To evaluate lactating toxicity, saffron was administered orally to the mothers once daily for 21 days, after delivery, during lactating period. Saffron increased serum urea nitrogen (p< 0.05). Histological studies indicated that saffron did not have any toxic effect on liver, however, histopathology changes were seen in the kidney of neonates. Conclusions: From the results of present study, it might be concluded that saffron is a nearly safe spice, however, nursing mothers should avoid high doses of this spice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

B Cover Legend b Flowering autotriploid I Crocus sativus i with orange stigmas as a source of the spice saffron, in front of DAPI-stained metaphase chromosomes. Courtesy of Sarah Breitenbach (Schmidt et al., pp. 1965-1980). [Extracted from the article]

Abstract Saffron (Crocus sativus), one of the most expensive herbs in China, has been subject to various types of adulteration as a consequence of its high price and limited production. The present work describes a sensitive, efficient and simple technique for on-site saffron identification. Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) in combination with a universal lateral flow immunoassay strip (saffron RPA-LFD) was employed for rapid visual detection of saffron. This assay was able to detect saffron in less than 15 min at 37 °C. This assay was highly sensitive with detection limits of 1 pg genomic DNA, and highly specific, with no cross-reaction with common saffron adulterants. This proposed simple and sensitive assay is well-suited for rapid molecular detection of saffron, with results in the form of the presence (positive bands) or absence (no positive bands) of bands. Highlights • We present the first on site saffron authentication based on LFD-RPA system. • A proposed standard operating procedure for the saffron RPA-LFD assay was given. • This assay was highly sensitive and specific with common saffron adulterants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world; so, determining optimum conditions for its processing is crucial. The most important processing stage of saffron is drying of its stigma, which should be optimized and there are no reports on reactance-window (RW) of saffron. In this research, drying of saffron with traditional, RW, and oven driers and at three temperatures of 60, 70 and 80 °C, as well as room temperature (25 °C) were studied. Regarding process duration, RW drier with 200 μm Mylar membrane and oven drier were the best methods with average drying time of 25.28 and 22.28 min, respectively. As far as the concentration of bioactive ingredients, i.e., picrocrocin, safranal, and crocin, of saffron was concerned, RW drier with Pyrex glass was better than other driers, resulting in 112.83 [Formula: see text] of picrocrocin, 51.79 [Formula: see text] of safranal, and 274.76 [Formula: see text] of crocin. The panelist most favored those saffron samples dried by RW with 300 μm Mylar membrane. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Abstract Crocin, a constituent of the saffron spice, exhibits promising antitumor activity in animal models and also inhibits the proliferation of several types of cancer cells in culture. Recently, we have shown that crocin binds to purified tubulin at the vinblastine site, depolymerizes microtubules and induces a mitotic block in cultured cells. Here, we extend our previous suggestion and explore the cellular effects of crocin to further understand its mechanism of action. In a kinetic study, we observed that the crocin-induced depolymerization of microtubules preceded both DNA damage and reactive oxygen species generation indicating that depolymerizing microtubules is the primary action of crocin. Crocin also inhibited the growth of cold-depolymerized microtubules in HeLa cells indicating that it can inhibit microtubule dynamics. Using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, crocin was found to suppress the spindle microtubule dynamics in live HeLa cells. Further, crocin treatment resulted in activation of spindle assembly checkpoint proteins, BubR1 and Mad2. Similar to other microtubule-targeting agents, crocin also perturbed the localization of end-binding protein EB1 from the growing microtubule ends and enhanced the acetylation of remaining microtubules. Further, crocin was found to bind to purified tubulin with a dissociation constant of 12 ± 1.5 μM. The results suggested that crocin exerted its antiproliferative effect primarily by inhibiting the assembly and dynamics of microtubules. Importantly, the combination of crocin with known anticancer agents like combretastatin A-4, cisplatin, doxorubicin or sorafenib, exerted a strong synergistic cytotoxic effect in HeLa cells indicating that crocin may enhance the effectiveness of other anticancer agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an important spice and medicinal plant that is cultivated in Asia, Europe, North Africa, and North America. Its morphological and biochemical parameters, such as the changes in the floral parts (six tepals, three stamens, three stigmata), biomass, and chlorophyll content, are primarily affected by environmental conditions. A polymerase chain reaction–rapid amplified polymorphic DNA (PCR‐RAPD) approach was used to analyze the extent of the polymorphisms between C. sativus genotypes grown in the Saudi climate. In this research study, the DNA fingerprints of the stigmata of C. sativus genotypes [K1 & K2 = C. sativus var. cashmerianus, C1 = C. sativus (nonmutant), T1 = mutant (T0‐2B), T2 = mutant (T1‐2B), T3 = mutant (T4‐2A)] were determined according to the floral parts, and a total of 10 decamer primers were used for PCR‐RAPD analysis. Only three pairs of arbitrary primers showed polymorphisms (33.3%–88.2%) in the total genomic DNA extracted from these genotypes. Jaccard's similarity index (JSI) ranged from 0.88 to 1.0. An unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) similarity and dendrogram matrix showed that two genotypes (T1‐2B and T4‐2A) were closely related to each other and to the strain CM‐cashmerianus, while the T0 of C. sativus genotype showed divergence. This study will provide a breakthrough in cultivating a mutant type of saffron, the most expensive spice worldwide in Saudi Arabia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Hydroponic cultivation with bioinoculants may increase saffron profitability. • Plant growth promoting bacteria and an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus were tested. • Bioinoculants improved the spice's safranal concentration. • Mixed formulation increased saffron total phenolic content. • The corm yield resulted enhanced for inoculated plants. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is the most expensive spice in the world. Its organoleptic properties are mainly dictated by the apocarotenoids crocins (dyeing capacity), picrocrocin (pleasant taste), and safranal (scent). Cultivation of saffron in controlled conditions with beneficial microorganisms may increase its profitability. In this study saffron was grown in hydroponics under a greenhouse with the PGPR Bacillus megaterium CB97032 and Paenibacillus durus CB1806 (Pgpr treatment), and the AMF Rhizophagus intraradices (Myc treatment), alone or mixed (Mix treatment). The influence exerted during all crop phases on flowering trend, flower and spice yield, secondary metabolites, ecophysiological traits, and corm production was investigated, with the hypothesis that microbial synergy would have more positively affected these parameters. All the bioinoculants did not positively influence flower and spice yield, but enhanced the content of safranal (up to +96% in all the treated plants). When mixed, the PGPR and AMF improved the total phenolic content (+19%) of the saffron spice. Even if no differences emerged from the ecophysiological analysis, the corm yield was improved for the inoculated plants. The single-type bioinoculants allowed to obtain a higher number of replacement corms (up to +13% for the Myc plants) without reducing their weight, but lowering their size. When mixed, the size of the corms was restored. Together, the PGPR and AMF also increased the corm weight (+24%) of the largest corm fraction (> 1.5 cm). Thus, the bioinoculants may have stimulated the secondary metabolism of the plants by improving quality traits, rather than having acted as biofertilizers by increasing yield, at least during flowering. Overall, AMF and PGPR were proved to be a sustainable horticultural solution in hydroponics to improve the quality of saffron, especially when applied in mixed formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron ( Crocus sativus ) stigmas as a flavoring commodity command a very high price in international food markets and, as a result, are a candidate for various kinds of fraud. This paper reports on the use of thin layer chromatography combined with image analysis (TLC-IA) and chemometrics techniques for validating the authenticity of saffron and rapidly identifying the type of adulterants. This method includes several pre-processing steps, such as correcting the general baseline (using the asymmetric least squares (AsLS) algorithm), converting the images to RGB chromatographic channels, and removing the shifts and concavity of spots (using a correlation optimization warping (COW) algorithm) prior to image analysis of saffron thin layer chromatography patterns. After employing the preprocessing sequence, different unsupervised multivariate data analysis (i.e. principal component analysis (PCA) and k-means) and supervised chemometric methods (i.e. partial least squares discrimination analysis (PLS-DA), variable selection (loading weight and variable importance in projection (VIP)) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA)) were applied to validate the authenticity of saffron and to classify the types of adulterants. As a result, quality control of Iranian sourced saffron in the international food market became possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, an integrated approach combining HPLC/DAD, GC/MS, near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, and chemometrics was used to geographically discriminate saffron samples from Iran and China. Chinese and Iranian samples can be well-separated based on HPLC data analysed by a principal component analysis and an orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis. Picrocrocin and two types of crocins were found to be the discriminating variables, and the Chinese samples had higher contents of safranal and picrocrocin but lower cis -crocin 3Gg, kaempferol-3- O -sophoroside and isophorone. Furthermore, an NIR method was successfully established to rapidly distinguish the Chinese and Iranian samples. The relationship between an ISO standard and the contents of the chemical indices was also studied. The results indicated that the ISO standard should be revised, especially for analysing safranal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron is an autumn-flowering high value, low volume aromatic and medicinal plant. The study attempts to explore aspects related to the brand equity of Kashmiri saffron. The main factors which account for the decline of saffron in Kashmir include improper marketing facilities and inefficiency of the government to keep a check on adulteration. This study helps in developing a strong brand for Kashmiri saffron, which can carve out a way to regulate the saffron market and counter the adulteration problem. The study defines Kashmiri saffron as a brand with respect to its Country-of-Origin (COO), while using Aaker's (1991) brand equity concept for its brand equity measurement. The research is empirical in nature, with data collected from different cities of India. The study uses correlation and regression techniques to arrive at a solution and concludes that for an agricultural product like saffron, not all brand equity dimensions (given by Aaker's (1991) conceptualization) are responsible for higher brand equity. It also reflects upon the directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron quality, especially its three secondary components which are: crocins, safranal, and picrocrocin, is highly dependent on processing and storage conditions. In this study, High Performance Liquid Chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) was used to analyze Moroccan saffron in order to study the effect of dehydration and storage conditions on its secondary components, its quality and its stability. Samples were dried in the shade and in the oven at 40 °C, then stored in a smoke glass boxes during one year. Storage and drying method had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the secondary components and kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-glucoside concentrations. Samples dried in the oven had the highest concentrations of crocins, picrocrocin and safranal, also the highest concentration of kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-glucoside compared with samples dried in the shade. After one year of storage, crocins of samples dried in the shade, had a noticeable decrease, more than 50% of loss, especially its two main molecules: trans − 4-GG-crocins and trans − 3-Gg-crocins. Picrocrocin and kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-glucoside also decreased whereas safranal increased. It was noticed the increasing of some cis -crocins and the disappearance of trans − 1-g. Results found, support the use of the oven: crocins increase noticeably at 40 °C of dehydration. A similar behavior is obtained for picrocrocin, safranal and kaempferol-3-sophoroside-7-glucoside. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Higher planting densities increase flower yield of saffron during the initial years; however, increase in population may have a negative effect on daughter corms, through increasing competition for nutrients. Accordingly, lower densities result in more desirable daughter corms for future planting. To investigate the effect of planting density, vermicompost and mineral fertilizers on daughter corms formation, and nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) content in the corms during different phenological stages, a three-year field experiment was conducted as factorial-split layout based on randomized complete block design with three replications, at Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The experiment consisted of 12 main plots [planting density (30, 60, 90 and 120 corms m−2) × fertilizer sources (vermicompost 10.2 t ha−1, mineral fertilizer including N 225 kg ha−1 + P 129.08 kg ha−1 and control)] and 15 subplots (15 sampling rounds; during the first, second and third growing seasons). During all stages of sampling, N and P content in large-sized daughter corms was significantly higher compared with middle and large-sized daughter corms. Application of vermicompost significantly increased the number, weight, N and P contents of medium and large daughter corms per plant than mineral fertilizer. Increase in plating density caused a significant reduction in number, weight, N and P content in the medium and large sized daughter corms per plant. Overall, the results suggest that lower densities and vermicompost application should be scheduled in mother corms production programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quality of saffron, a valuable food additive, could considerably affect the consumers’ health. In this work, a novel preprocessing strategy for image analysis of saffron thin layer chromatographic (TLC) patterns was introduced. This includes performing a series of image pre-processing techniques on TLC images such as compression, inversion, elimination of general baseline (using asymmetric least squares (AsLS)), removing spots shift and concavity (by correlation optimization warping (COW)), and finally conversion to RGB chromatograms. Subsequently, an unsupervised multivariate data analysis including principal component analysis (PCA) and k-means clustering was utilized to investigate the soil salinity effect, as a cultivation parameter, on saffron TLC patterns. This method was used as a rapid and simple technique to obtain the chemical fingerprints of saffron TLC images. Finally, the separated TLC spots were chemically identified using high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). Accordingly, the saffron quality from different areas of Iran was evaluated and classified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to quantitatively characterize the aroma strength of saffron, Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae), using an electronic nose (e-nose). Thirty-three saffron samples from different geographical regions were prepared for the experiments. The aroma strength of the saffron samples was determined based on the ISO 3632 method as E 1cm1%330nm directly relates to safranal concentration. Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) and Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural network models were then applied for the prediction of E1cm1%330nm using sensor array responses of the e-nose sensors. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was also utilized for aroma feature selection and then dimensionality reduction of sensor array data sets for improving the neural models was applied. The results revealed that in the improved MLP model with lower-dimension data, the prediction accuracy of E1cm1%330nm (R² = 0.99, RMSE = 0.64) remained the same or slightly higher than the original model with higher-dimension data and also was better than those obtained using the RBF models. The overall results showed the suitability of e-nose as a nondestructive and online instrument for saffron aroma strength characterization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of cold plasma on crocin esters and volatile oils of saffron was studied for the first time. After the treatments, (Ar, Ar/5% O 2 and Ar/10% O 2 at 8 and 12 kV of voltage), a decrease in crocin esters and saffranal and an increase in isophorone and 4-ketoisophorone was observed. After 4 min, the saffron samples treated with Ar/20% O 2 had blackened and the treatment was discontinued. The results show that increasing the input voltage and increasing the amount of added oxygen to Argon gas increased the changes in the safranal and crocin esters. There was no trans-2G, cis-4GG or cis-3Gg compounds observed after the Ar/10% O 2 cold plasma treatment at 12 kV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]