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Climate change (CC) is a topic of discussion not only among academicians but also among the general public. It is becoming more evident in increasing agricultural challenges, extreme events, and water scarcity. The changing climatic trends may threaten small farmers and traditional communities living in fragile ecosystems like the Himalayas. Although the scientific community is looking to understand the change better, at the same time, it is equally important to know how locals perceive the climate threat and adaptive capacity. This article intends to analyse and perceive CC in the Rangit Basin, Sikkim. A primary survey of 210 respondents was conducted across three altitudinal zones (low: up to 1,000 m, middle: 1,000–2,000 m, and high: above 2,000 m) to understand the local perception, associated agricultural challenges, and analysis of meteorological data. As primary tools, interviews, household surveys, and FGD were undertaken. The study concludes that these farmers perceive a change in climate, which varies across villages and altitudes. The temperature (0.0001) analysis shows an increasing trend, whereas precipitation also shows a slightly increasing trend (0.126), but a decline in the winter season. Local adaptive measures, indigenous knowledge, and practices could play a vital role in mitigating and adapting to change. Also, the policy interventions at various levels could help these farmers cope, mitigate, and adapt to climate vulnerabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large-scale land transformation after the green revolution (modernization of Agriculture with the consumptive use of high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, fertilizers and pesticides complemented with irrigation facilities to increase the food production of India during the 1960s) has altered the hydrological cycle and water balance in the semi-arid region of southern Haryana. In this context, this paper analyzes the impact of land-use/cover changes and intensive agricultural practices on the groundwater status in the area from 1980 to 2015. Supervised classification (maximum likelihood technique) has been used to perform change detection, whilst the Groundwater Development Index and change detection method have been used for the computation of groundwater storage change. The result indicates that the area under crops has decreased from 602611 km2 to 591589 km2, while an unprecedented growth of (97.80%) has been witnessed in the built-up area in all these years. The water table has fallen from 9.27mbgl (meters below ground level) in 1980 to 25.58 mbgl in 2015, at the rate of 0.4m per year as the water-efficient crops such as wheat, sugarcane, and paddy have been replaced by less water-consuming crops such as mustered, jowar, bajra, maize, and gram. Groundwater development has exceeded 100% of the natural replenishment level in the Gurgaon and Palwal districts and lies in the 'Over-exploited' category. Hence, it is needed to monitor the land use/cover changes and groundwater withdrawals and increase the body of quantitative evidence to check the pressure of the growing human population and climate change on water resources in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asian catfish, Clarias magur (Hamilton, 1822), known as magur, is a popular food fish in Asian countries because of its high nutritional and medicinal value. Aquaculture of magur is constrained by non‐availability of seed due to very high mortality during the early larval stages. The strategies to enhance the larval survival during the early stages could be a major step in enhancing the seed production of this species. So, the aim of the present study was to assess the effect of highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA)‐ and vitamin C‐enriched infusoria on the growth and survival of C. magur larvae. Eight‐day‐old larvae with an average weight of 3 mg and length of 5 mm were stocked in plastic crates (30 x 20 x 18 cm) each containing 40 litres of water. A total of 16 crates were used in experiment and in each crate 100 larvae were stocked. The larvae were fed three times daily with HUFA, vitamin C, both HUFA and vitamin C and un‐enriched infusoria @ 9–10 numbers per ml of rearing water for 30 days in four different treatment groups. The proximate analysis of different enriched and un‐enriched infusoria showed the highest (84.25%) moisture content in HUFA‐enriched Infusoria, and the highest percentage of crude protein (9.80%), crude lipid (3.50%) and ash content (0.78%) in vitamin C‐enriched Infusoria. The survivability analysis showed the highest survival in the treatment group fed with HUFA‐enriched infusoria (49.25%) and the lowest in the control group (18.25%). This indicates that the enrichment of infusoria with HUFA could increase the survival rate significantly. The highest body weight gain (55.75 mg) was observed in HUFA‐enriched group but not significantly different from the control group. The study indicates that the enrichment of infusoria with HUFA have a significant influence on larval survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is a global issue. Its impacts are recognized at different scales ranging from global to regional to local. Climate change particularly changes in temperature and precipitation has been observed differently in different ecological regions in Nepal Himalaya. The study area comprises five villages of three ecological regions in the Gandaki River Basin (GRB) of Nepal. Based on the observed climate data of a 30-year period from 1990 to 2020, the changes in temperature and precipitation of each ecological region are analyzed using the Mann–Kendall trend test and Sen's slope. The temperature trend was found to be increasing at the rate of 0.0254 °C per year (°C/a) between 1990 and 2020 in the Mountain region, by 0.0921 °C/a in the Hill region and 0.0042 °C/a in the Tarai region. The precipitation trend in the Mountain region is decreasing by −13.126 mm per year (mm/a), by −9.3998 mm/a in the Hill region and by −5.0247 mm/a in the Tarai region. Household questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were carried out to assess the perception of climate change and its impact. The farmers of the three ecological regions have perceived increasing temperature trends, but perceived variability in precipitation trends. Both snowfall and rainfall have varied. Snowfall has drastically decreased. Drought has increased. Extreme disaster events and impacts from such climate-induced events are experienced by 67.9% of respondents. A major impact of climate change is reported on cultivated crops with damage caused by increased insect and rodent pests. The impact of climate change is varied by ecological region. The comparative study of observed data and household data shows the need for a micro-level study so that a real situation can be captured and would be very much useful for policy formulation to combat climate change at a local scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study attempts to investigate climatic trends in Southern Haryana between the periods of 1980-2017. Temperature and rainfall variations for winter, summer, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons were calculated using the Mann-Kendall test and Sen's slope estimator. Results indicated that the temperature shows an increasing trend for winter (0.5657), monsoon (0.1529), and post-monsoon (0.0034). The results for rainfall shows negative Kendall's tau values for winter (-0.0953), monsoon (-0.0100) season, which denotes a decrease in rainfall over the years in the already dried region. The annual potential evapotranspiration (PET) trends were also shown using linear regression line indicated an upward trend over the years, which has increased 2.38 mm since in the last 37 years, increasing pressure on aquifers. In nutshell, we can say that temperatures are warming up and the rainfall has been shrinking exacerbating the situation for society and the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

'Water' always has been a key resource for humankind but over the period with increasing population and rapid urbanization, water resource is under immense pressure. Groundwater is the prime source of drinking water and needs proper monitoring in order to have an optimum utilization strategy owing to the current scenario of over-exploitation. Being the part of Deccan trap region, the basin is hot and semi-arid, experiencing moderately dry climate accompanied by episodic drought and erratic showers therefore, the surface water of the basin is ephemeral. In the present study, the probabilistic recharge zones have been delineated by dint of various thematic layers viz. geological setting, geomorphic features, land use, slope gradient, infiltration number, soil physiognomies, curvature and lineament through multi-criteria decision analysis technique in the GIS domain. This has further divided into four categories, viz., very poor, poor, good, and very good zones. Thus, this paper is an attempt to demarcate probabilistic groundwater zones in the Vaniar watershed region using geospatial techniques for better planning and management of groundwater resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this study was to understand the farmer's indigenous knowledge of terrace management in the Sikkim Himalaya with reference to Rani Khola watershed. Primary data were collected through a mix of questionnaire surveys, focused group discussions, and field observations with a sample size of 300 households. Detailed documentation of the evolution of the terraces and their types, bunding material, types of risers, the relationship of slope and terraces dimensions, soil and water conservation (SWC) practices were performed. Remote sensing data was used to derive information pertaining to elevation, slope and land-use/cover of the watershed. The study reveals that dimensions and types of terraces are subjected to the elevation, slope gradient, local soil and vegetation cover. Leveled terraces were constructed on lower slopes while outward sloping terraces were more common on higher slopes. It was also observed that with the increase in slope angle, width and length of the terraces decreased. Terrace riser height was also correlated with slope; riser height unavoidably increased as slope increased. The study concludes that terraces in the study watershed are effective in reducing the slope gradient and length, and in turn helpful in trapping eroded soil, slowing soil movement and in due course reducing soil erosion and increasing agricultural productivity. It is suggested that for overall management of terraces, it needs to be combined with additional soil and water conservation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lack of importance given to farmers' knowledge and perceptions towards soil and water conservation (SWC) is a major factor responsible for failure of conservation programs. The study explores farmers understanding of SWC and further adds to the limited empirical evidence towards farmers' willingness-to-pay (WTP) for SWC. Contingent valuation survey conducted to elicit the WTP (cash and labor days) for SWC draws attention to the importance of adopting SWC to ensure year-round water availability. The willing households of the area could generate US$1302.2 and/or 1207 labor days monthly. The WTP (cash) showed strong positive influence by qualification, total income, off-farm income and previous irrigation farming experience; while WTP (labor days) showed strong negative influence by age, qualification, dependency ratio, market access and livestock holding. The study will be useful for decision makers regarding investments and policy purposes for soil-water conservation measures in agricultural lands of developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil and water conservation (SWC) measures are needed to control erosion and sustain agricultural production in mountain regions. This study assessed the costs and benefits of indigenous SWC measures in a predominantly rural watershed in Sikkim Himalaya, India, from 2009 to 2010. Physical data were obtained through field measurements of soil erosion and runoff in plots with and without SWC measures; further information was collected through a structured questionnaire survey of 150 farm households. Major costs and benefits of various measures implemented in the study area were quantified using net present value, internal rate of return, time horizon, discount rate, payback period, and sensitivity analysis. For a 10-year period and with a 6% discount rate, all the practices were found to have a positive net present value and to help ensure economic and environmental sustainability. The sensitivity analysis showed that the most widespread SWC practices are worth implementing. Some practices not only prevented nutrient loss and retained soil moisture but also provided additional income and increased crop yield. Our findings suggest that agroforestry and vegetative barriers are the most favorable practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on the assessment of land degradation, overland flow, soil loss, and nutrient loss have emerged as paramount importance for food security and rural livelihood in the mountains. The present study dealt with similar issues in the Eastern Himalayas, for which the primary data were collected from the field during 2017–18. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect data on soil erosion and information on overland flow, soil loss, and nutrient loss was assessed through field experiments in the watershed of Sikkim, Eastern Himalayas. The first section of the methodology deals with the experimental analysis from different land use categories to quantify soil loss. In the second section, detailed qualitative analyses of farmers' perceptions of soil erosion indicators were recorded through field surveys, i.e., key informant interviews (KEIs) and focus group discussions (FDGs). The results showed that the highest overland flow was in barren land (8.63%) followed by large cardamom-based agroforestry system (7.02%), and mixed cropping (4.84%), and the lowest overland flow was in terrace cultivation (4.69%). Soil loss was estimated to be the highest for barren land (7.73 Mg/ha/year (megagram/hectare/year)) followed by mixed cropping (4.32 Mg/ha/year), and terrace cultivation (3.75 Mg/ha/year), with the least soil loss estimated to be in cardamom-based agroforestry (3.23 Mg/ha/year). Loss of nitrogen (N) (4.49 kg/ha/year) and phosphorous (P) (2.43 kg/ha/year) were highest in barren land, while potassium (K) loss was highest (4.30 kg/ha/year) in mixed farming. The lowest N loss rate (3.34 kg/ha/year) was in terrace cultivation, the lowest P loss rate (8.19 kg/ha/year) was in mixed farming, and the lowest potassium loss rate (3.28 kg/ha/year) was in cardamom-based agroforestry. Approximately 33% of the farmers acknowledged light or no soil losses, while 17% of the farmers accepted moderate soil erosion. The results of field survey indicated that only 15–19% of the farmers reported high or extreme soil loss in the fields. Farmers in the watershed are practicing multiple measures to control land degradation; however, marginal farmers are still vulnerable and need strong support from the government to safeguard their land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture is the major source of livelihood in rural areas and is considered the backbone of the Indian economy. In Sikkim, agriculture is being practiced by 80% of the rural population, and having no other major livelihood options has created immense pressure on the farmers and agricultural land. Agriculture sector is under great stress as the farmers are being confronted by various challenges in Sikkim Himalaya in recent years, such as land degradation, climate change and socio-economic problems. Despite the number of indigenous agriculture management methods being practised in Sikkim Himalaya, the agricultural production system is weakening. In this context, this paper presents an analysis of challenges faced by indigenous communities, local farmers and potential sustainable strategies for their management in Rani Khola watershed of Sikkim Himalaya. Data and information were collected by field observation, questionnaire surveys of 300 households, key informant interviews and focus group discussions conducted during 2017–18. Data processing and analysis were carried out with a combination of techniques, such as the application of remote sensing (RS), geographic information system (GIS)-based data processing and descriptive statistics. Major challenges identified in the watershed are water scarcity (80%), climate change (88%), soil erosion and runoff (72%), higher investment cost (100%), lack of irrigation facilities (77%), fragmentation and size of landholdings (100), human–wildlife conflict (59%) and pests and disease (60%). Some possibilities and innovations that could address these problems are the use and retaining of various indigenous soil and water conservation (SWC) measures, diversified farming systems, community involvement in the government development process, better irrigation facilities, strengthening the local economy, coordinated planning between stakeholders and development of market feedback mechanism within the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, groundwater suitability for domestic and irrigation purposes was analyzed in the alluvial aquifers of the Bist-Doab region of Punjab, India, using various indices such as WQI, WAWQI, MCDA, RSC, SAR, PI, %Na, KR, MH, PS, K, and Ka. Since it is difficult to assess the suitability of groundwater for irrigation based on various indices individually, a composite groundwater quality index for irrigation (CGQII) was used in the study which transforms nine indices to a single value for each sample. Results reveal that the groundwater of a few blocks was found unsuitable for domestic use due to chemical leaching from fertilizers, pesticides, and agricultural and industrial wastes. Whereas, the groundwater of mainly southwestern parts was found unsuitable for irrigation due to long-term water accumulation in aquifers and continuous use of sodium-ion-rich groundwater. The findings conclude that anthropogenic activities have played a significant role in making groundwater unfit for domestic and irrigation purposes in the study area. The present study also emphasizes continuous monitoring and evaluation of groundwater quality, which will help in strategic planning and management for the conservation of groundwater resources in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate-induced extreme events with fluctuations in climatic indicators like temperature and precipitation highly influence crop productivity. This study deals with quantitative analysis of climatic variability and crop production (1990-2018) using panel data regression analysis. The focus is on variability of three crops, i.e., paddy, maize, and wheat in the Rangit river basin of Sikkim Himalaya, India. Meterological data were acquired from the Indian Meteorological Department, agricultural data from the state agricultural department and a field survey were also conducted with the farmers, using a structured questionnaire, focused group discussion, and key informant observations. The acquired data was analyzed with the help of correlation and multiple linear regression analysis to analyze the relationship between climatic variability and crop production. The result of the study shows that all three crops are dependent on rainfall; however, paddy was the most sensitive to climatic variability. It was found that the overall grain production had an inverse relation to temperature, but it had a positive correlation with rainfall. It was observed that there was a continuous decline in the overall production of paddy and wheat. During deficiency years, it was found that when - 11.33% rainfall was deficient, paddy yield declined by - 1.52%. Further, a deviation of - 13.48% led to a decline of - 54.78% in wheat. The study advocates that timely policy interventions and strategies shall reduce climatic shocks and improve productivity. This would strengthen the livelihood security of the local communities, overcome the challenges of food security, and ensure long-term sustainability of Rangit River basin., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.)