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Clastic sediment composition constitutes a key archive of Earth history, controlled by allogenic and autogenic processes that impact weathering, erosion, sediment transfer, and deposition. Deciphering those processes can provide valuable insights into ancient and modern tectonic, geomorphic, climatic, and anthropogenic controls that shape sediment routing systems over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. However, in order to clearly identify the controls on sediment composition, it is necessary to exclude sources of bias that may mask or diminish the original provenance signal. Such biases may be natural, including mineral fertility, sediment recycling, and grain size, or analytical. This special collection arises from the fifth meeting of the working group on sediment generation held at the University Milano‐Bicocca in Milan, Italy, from 28 to 30 June 2022. The collation includes studies that investigate biasing factors affecting all steps of the sediment cascade and all stages of sample collection, preparation, and analysis, as well as case studies that aim to disentangle original provenance signals from geological, environmental, or analytical noise. Plain Language Summary: This text introduces the special collection collating contributions arising from the fifth meeting of the working group on sediment generation (WGSG), held at the University Milano‐Bicocca in Milan, Italy, from 28 to 30 June 2022. The WGSG aims at contributing to the understanding of siliciclastic sediment generation. Sediment composition reflects the tectonic, geomorphic, climatic, and anthropogenic characteristics of the Earth surface. Sedimentary successions therefore provide the possibility to interpret ancient Earth surface conditions. The theme of this fifth special collection is the identification and mitigation of natural and analytical bias, that may arise, for example, through the subjective selection of sampling sites or analytical techniques. Bias can create noise, which may prevent the correct interpretation of past Earth surface conditions. The collation includes studies that investigate specific biasing factors, as well as case studies that aim to disentangle original compositional signals from analytical and environmental noise. Key Points: Numerous biasing factors and processes exist that complicate the understanding of source‐to‐sink relationshipsBias is defined as any systematic error that is introduced by selecting specific samples, proxies, or procedures17 papers dealing with natural and methodological/analytical biases are presented [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Niger River drains a large part of the West African Craton, where rocks ranging in age from Paleoarchean to recent offer an unexcelled opportunity to map the diverse time structures of sediment sources and provide essential information for provenance diagnoses. In this study, U‐Pb zircon dating is complemented with bulk‐sand geochemical (Zr, Hf, REE) and Nd‐Hf isotope data to pin‐point parent rocks of zircon grains and draw inferences on sediment generation across sub‐Saharan western Africa. In Upper Niger sand, zircon ages pass from exclusively Archean in Guinea headwaters to dominantly Paleoproterozoic in the Inner Delta in Mali, testifying to the progressive dilution by tributary sediment derived from the Birimian domain. Zircon ages abruptly change to dominantly Neoproterozoic downstream of the Inner Delta, becoming indistinguishable from those in Saharan eolian dunes across the Sahel. Most of the sediment generated in the headwaters is thus dumped in the marshlands and bedload is reconstituted downstream by recycling eolian sand. Zircon grains in the Lower Niger yielded virtually the same U‐Pb ages as in Benue sediment, indicating an overwhelming supply from the Benue tributary. In the Niger Delta, however, Archean zircons reappear, and both εNd and εHf values become notably more negative, indicating extensive reworking of sand deposited along the coastal plain at earlier times of wetter climate, when artificial barriers to the sediment flux did not exist in the upper to middle Niger River catchment. Plain Language Summary: Across sub‐Saharan western Africa, the Niger River drains rocks with ages spanning more than 3 billion years. In such a vast region, diverse techniques can be combined to identify processes of erosion and transport, starting from the analysis of sediments and the zircon grains they contain. The very old ages of zircons derived from Guinean headwaters (all older than 2650 million years) are gradually diluted by younger zircons generated in SW Mali (from 1900 to 2200 million years), whereas a sharp change to more recent zircon ages (from 500 to 700 million years) is documented downstream of the Inner Delta. Most sediment generated in the headwaters is thus dumped in these marshlands and subsequently replaced with sand eroded from eolian dunes along the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. Rigid segmentation of fluvial sediment transport has become the rule after the extensive construction of dams worldwide, but can also be caused by natural processes. Marshlands formed at the subequatorial edge of tropical deserts can represent very efficient natural barriers to sediment transport, preventing a large part of the detritus generated in the highlands from reaching the ocean, with consequent impact on both sediment budgets and sediment composition. Key Points: The Niger River offers an unexcelled opportunity to use detrital geochronology to map the diverse time structures of sediment sourcesSand generated in the headwaters is dumped in the Inner Delta as indicated by a significant change in the U‐Pb signature and εNd‐εHf valuesReworking of sand along the coastal plain testifies the absence of artificial or major natural barriers to the sediment flux in earlier times [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elemental geochemistry, Nd isotopes, clay minerals, and U-Pb zircon ages integrated by petrographic and heavy-mineral data offer a multiproxy panorama of mud and sand composition across the Zambezi sediment-routing system. Detrital zircon geochronology highlights the four major episodes of crustal growth in southern Africa: Irumide ages predominate over Pan-African, Eburnean, and Neoarchean ages. Smectite, dominant in mud generated from Karoo basalts or in the equatorial/winter-dry climate of the Mozambican lowlands, prevails over illite and kaolinite. Elemental geochemistry reflects quartz addition by recycling (Uppermost Zambezi), supply from Karoo basalts (Upper Zambezi), and first-cycle provenance from Precambrian basements (Lower Zambezi). Mildly negative for sediments derived from mafic granulites, gabbros, and basalts, εNd values are most negative for sand derived from cratonic gneisses. Intrasample variability among cohesive mud, very coarse silt, and sand is principally caused by the concentration of Nd-rich monazite in the fine tail of the size distribution. The settling-equivalence effect also explains deviations from the theoretical relationship between εNd and T Nd,DM model ages, suggesting that monazite carries a more negative εNd signal than less dense and less durable heavy minerals. Elemental geochemistry and Nd isotopes reveal that the Mazowe-Luenha river system contributes most of the sediment reaching the Zambezi delta today, with minor supply from the Shire River. Sediment yields and erosion rates are much lower on the low-relief Kalahari Plateau than in rugged Precambrian terranes. On the plateau, mineralogical and geochemical indices testify to extensive breakdown of feldspars and garnet unjustified by the present dry climate. Detrital kaolinite is recycled by incision of Cretaceous–Cenozoic paleosols even in the wetter lower catchment, where inefficient hydrolysis is testified to by abundant fresh feldspars and undepleted Ca and Na. Mud geochemistry and surficial corrosion of ferromagnesian minerals indicate that, at present, weathering increases only slightly downstream the Zambezi River. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Yarlung Tsangpo, draining the Himalayan‐Tibetan orogen along the Indus‐Yarlung suture zone, receives detritus from the deformed remnants of both Indian margin to the south and Asian margin to the north. High resolution petrographic, heavy‐mineral and geochemical datasets, combined with published geochronological data, allow us to monitor compositional changes, estimate erosion rates and investigate lithologic, climatic and anthropic controls on sediment fluxes along this large sediment‐routing system entirely developed within high mountain areas. Sediment generated from the Lhasa Block along the southern margin of Asia is characterized by abundant feldspar and volcanic rock fragments, amphibole‐dominated transparent heavy mineral suite and high concentrations of K, Rb, Be, Th and Pb. Himalayan‐derived sand, instead, is characterized by sedimentary to low‐rank metasedimentary rock fragments, poor transparent heavy mineral suite dominated by durable recycled (zircon, tourmaline) or metamorphic minerals (chloritoid, garnet) and high Ca concentration. Sand from the ophiolitic suture is distinguished by serpentinite grains and mafic volcanic or metavolcanic detritus, transparent heavy mineral suite including olivine, Cr‐spinel, enstatite and clinopyroxene, and high Mg, Cr, Ni and low rare earth elements. Himalayan detritus is prominent in Yarlung Tsangpo upper reaches, whereas detritus from the Lhasa Block becomes progressively predominant in the middle and lower reaches. Provenance budgets based on integrated petrographic, heavy‐mineral and geochemical datasets indicate that ca. 83% of the detritus is supplied by the Lhasa Block and the rest mostly from the Himalaya (ca. 12%) and subordinately from the ophiolitic suture (5%). A low average erosion rate of ca. 0.06 mm/a was estimated for the Yarlung Tsangpo catchment upstream of the Namche Barwa syntaxis, which resulted from dry climate, relatively mild average relief and sediment storage in wide valley tracts of the middle and lower reaches. The decrease in sediment flux recorded in recent decades is mainly ascribed to growing human activities, which are becoming a prominent control on sediment generation and transportation even in the high‐mountain area of South Tibet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Zambezi River rises at the center of southern Africa, flows across the low-relief Kalahari Plateau, meets Karoo basalt, plunges into Victoria Falls, follows along Karoo rifts, and pierces through Precambrian basement to eventually deliver its load onto the Mozambican passive margin. Reflecting its polyphase evolution, the river is subdivided into segments with different geological and geomorphological character, a subdivision finally fixed by man's construction of large reservoirs and faithfully testified by sharp changes in sediment composition. Pure quartzose sand recycled from Kalahari desert dunes in the uppermost tract is next progressively enriched in basaltic rock fragments and clinopyroxene. Sediment load is renewed first downstream of Lake Kariba and next downstream of Lake Cahora Bassa, documenting a stepwise decrease in quartz and durable heavy minerals. Composition becomes quartzo-feldspathic in the lower tract, where most sediment is supplied by high-grade basements rejuvenated by the southward propagation of the East African rift. Feldspar abundance in Lower Zambezi sand has no equivalent among big rivers on Earth and far exceeds that in sediments of the northern delta, shelf, and slope, revealing that provenance signals from the upper reaches have ceased to be transmitted across the routing system after closure of the big dams. This high-resolution petrologic study of Zambezi sand allows us to critically reconsider several dogmas, such as the supposed increase of mineralogical "maturity" during long-distance fluvial transport, and forges a key to unlock the rich information stored in sedimentary archives, with the ultimate goal to accurately reconstruct the evolution of this mighty river flowing across changing African landscapes since the late Mesozoic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Major deserts do not necessarily consist of eolian dunes as quartz-rich as those of the Great Nafud, Rub' al Khali, Sahara, and Mega-Kalahari sand seas accumulated in anorogenic settings of Arabia and Africa. The Karakum dune field of Turkmenistan is one of the several examples of central Asian deserts bound by recent or recently reactivated orogenic belts where eolian sand includes abundant sedimentary and subordinately metamorphic and volcanic lithic fragments. Feldspatho-litho-quartzose detrital modes and epidote-amphibole-garnet heavy-mineral suites of southern Karakum dune sand compare well with those in mountain branches of the Amu Darya, indicating provenance from the western Pamir mountains of Tajikistan in the east. Dunes closer to the Caspian Sea in the west contain additional carbonate or felsic volcanic grains which, together with decreasing heavy-mineral concentration and increasing ZTR indices, reveals local recycling of cover strata exposed in the Kopeh-Dagh and Balkhan zone. Our data suggest that the huge Amu Darya River, which in Plio-Pleistocene to historical times has repeatedly changed its course across Turkmenistan from westward toward the Caspian Sea to northward toward the Aral Sea, represents the major sediment source for the Karakum Desert. Together with the Taklamakan sand sea of the Tarim basin, the Ordos and adjacent deserts of northern China, and the Thal and Thar deserts of the western Himalayan foreland basin, the Karakum would thus represent another example of large dune field principally fed by one major fluvial feeder system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We critically evaluate the potential and limitations of an alternative way to calculate erosion rates based on petrographic and mineralogical fingerprints of fluvial sediments coupled with gauged sediment fluxes. Our approach allows us to apportion sediment loads to different lithological units, and consequently to discriminate erosion rates in different tectonic domains within each catchment. Our provenance data on modern Taiwanese sands indicate focused erosion in the Backbone Range and Tananao Complex of the retrowedge. Lower rates are inferred for the northern part of the island characterized by tectonic extension and for the western foothills in the prowedge. The principal factor of uncertainty affecting our estimates is the inevitably inaccurate evaluation of total sediment load, because only the suspended flux was measured. Another is the assumption that suspended load and bed load are derived from the same sources in fixed proportions. Additional errors are caused by the insufficiently precise definition of lithologically similar compositional end-members and by the temporal variability of sediment composition at the outlet of each catchment related to the spatial variability of erosional processes and triggering agents such as earthquakes, typhoons, and landslides. To evaluate the robustness of our findings, we applied a morphometric technique based on the stream-power model. The results obtained are broadly consistent, with local discrepancies ascribed to poorly constrained assumptions and choices of scaling parameters. Our local erosion estimates are consistent with GPS uplift rates measured on a decadal timescale and generally higher than basin-wide results inferred from cosmogenic-nuclide and thermochronology data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detrital geochronology studies require a careful quantification of hydraulic sorting effects and of the variable abundance (fertility) of datable minerals in different parent rocks. Because the physical processes of settling and selective entrainment are well known, their effects in sediments can be easily detected and modeled mathematically. By contrast, mineral fertility in parent rocks depends on their full geological history. As a consequence, the relationships between bedrock geology and mineral fertility are hardly predictable, and a direct measurement of this latter parameter is thus required. In this review article, we describe the basic principles of hydraulic sorting, and illustrate a quantitative approach for mineral fertility determination that applies these basic principles to the analysis of modern sediments. Its application to the European Alps shows that apatite and zircon fertility values may range over three orders of magnitude. Variable mineral fertility in parent rocks thus represents, by far, the largest source of bias in detrital geochronology studies. Our study highlights an evident relationship between bedrock geology and mineral fertility, which confirms that the mineral concentration in modern sediments, in the lack of hydraulic sorting effects, is a good proxy of the mineral abundance in bedrock. Mineral fertility maps of the European Alps unravel that metamorphic and plutonic rocks generally have higher apatite and zircon fertility values than sedimentary rocks, but major variations are also observed between different tectonic units within the same paleogeographic domain. The impact of mineral fertility in detrital studies is eventually illustrated with examples from the Alpine region, based on alternative sampling strategies (i.e., the confluence sampling and the along-trunk sampling approaches). We show that geological interpretations are strongly improved when mineral fertility is properly taken into account, not only in modern settings, but also in ancient sedimentary successions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main source of siliciclastic sediment in the Barbados accretionary prism is off-scraped quartzose to feldspatho-litho-quartzose metasedimentaclastic turbidites, ultimately supplied from South America chiefly via the Orinoco fluvio-deltaic system. Modern sand on Barbados island is either quartzose with depleted heavy-mineral suites recycled from Cenozoic turbidites and including epidote, zircon, tourmaline, andalusite, garnet, staurolite and chloritoid, or calcareous and derived from Pleistocene coral reefs. The ubiquitous occurrence of clinopyroxene and hypersthene, associated with green-brown kaersutitic hornblende in the north or olivine in the south, points to reworking of ash-fall tephra erupted from andesitic (St Lucia) and basaltic (St Vincent) volcanic centres in the Lesser Antilles arc. Modern sediments on Barbados island and those shed by larger accretionary prisms such as the Indo-Burman Ranges and Andaman-Nicobar Ridge define the distinctive mineralogical signature of Subduction Complex Provenance, which is invariably composite. Detritus recycled from accreted turbidites and oceanic mudrocks is mixed in various proportions with detritus from the adjacent volcanic arc or carbonate reefs widely developed at tropical latitudes. Ophiolitic detritus, locally prominent on the Andaman Islands, is absent on Barbados, where the prism formed above a westward subduction zone with a shallow décollement plane. The four-dimensional complexities inherent with multicyclic sediment dispersal along and across convergent plate boundaries require quantitative provenance analysis as a basic tool in paleogeographic reconstructions. Such analysis provides the link between faraway factories of detritus and depositional sinks, as well as clues on subduction geometry and the nature of associated growing orogenic belts, and even information on climate, atmospheric circulation and weathering intensity in source regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In their Comment to Resentini et al. (2020) , Mesalles et al. pointed out supposed fundamental inaccuracies concerning analytical aspects and the tectonic interpretation of fission-track data. This would invalidate the main conclusions of our study. Here we demonstrate that their criticism is ill-founded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A refined approach to fission-track analysis assisted by Raman spectroscopy. • Examples of interpretation of fission-track data including zero-track grains. • Ongoing exhumation is progressing southward in the Taiwan orogen. • Evidence of major apatite input from the Namche Barwa syntaxis to the Bengal Fan. In clastic detritus derived from the erosion of young active orogens, the geologic interpretation of apatite fission-track (AFT) data is hampered by the occurrence of grains without spontaneous tracks and by contributions from multiple eroding sources with different apatite fertilities. Here, we use the Taiwan orogen as a test case to illustrate how to overcome these problems and deal with zero-track grains in detrital AFT studies following long-established principles of fission-track statistics. Our results support the effectiveness of Raman spectroscopy for a reliable identification of apatite grains. We found that zero-track grains are dominant in Taiwan modern sands, and generally contain enough U to provide useful AFT age constraints to exhumation. The absence of spontaneous tracks in most of these grains is due to a short residence time below the temperature of total AFT annealing rather than to low U concentration. Detrital AFT data shows that the extent of the Taiwan AFT reset zone previously inferred from bedrock data was partly underestimated. The revised AFT reset zone includes the southernmost part of the island and, when combined with published ZFT data, supports a scenario of southward progressing exhumation during arc-continent collision. The application of the Taiwan lesson to clastic detritus derived from the Himalaya resolves paradoxical interpretations of detrital fission-track data sets recently published in the framework of IODP Expedition 354, pointing to a major role of the Namche Barwa syntaxis as a source of apatite grains shed to the Bengal Fan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a Quaternary repository of wind-reworked Indus River sand at the entry point in the Himalayan foreland basin, the Thal Desert in northern Pakistan stores mineralogical information useful to trace erosion patterns across the western Himalayan syntaxis and the adjacent orogenic segments that fed detritus into the Indus delta and huge deep-sea fan throughout the Neogene. Provenance analysis of Thal Desert sand was carried out by applying optical and semi-automated Raman spectroscopy on heavy-mineral suites of four eolian and 11 fluvial sand samples collected in selected tributaries draining one specific tectonic domain each in the upper Indus catchment. In each sample, the different types of amphibole, garnet, epidote and pyroxene grains—the four dominant heavy-mineral species in orogenic sediment worldwide—were characterized by SEM-EDS spectroscopy. The chemical composition of 4249 grains was thus determined. Heavy-mineral concentration, the relative proportion of heavy-mineral species, and their minerochemical fingerprints indicate that the Kohistan arc has played the principal role as a source, especially of pyroxene and epidote. Within the western Himalayan syntaxis undergoing rapid exhumation, the Southern Karakorum belt drained by the Hispar River and the Nanga Parbat massif were revealed as important sources of garnet, amphibole, and possibly epidote. Sediment supply from the Greater Himalaya, Lesser Himalaya, and Subhimalaya is dominant only for Punjab tributaries that join the Indus River downstream and do not contribute sand to the Thal Desert. The detailed compositional fingerprint of Thal Desert sand, if contrasted with that of lower course tributaries exclusively draining the Himalaya, provides a semi-actualistic key to be used, in conjunction with complementary provenance datasets and geological information, to reconstruct changes in paleodrainage and unravel the relationship between climatic and tectonic forces that controlled the erosional evolution of the western Himalayan-Karakorum orogen in space and time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detrital thermochronology is generally used to reconstruct tectonic and erosional processes at the scale of the entire orogen (Garver et al., 1999). Comparison of apatite-fertility maps and thermochronological data from the European Alps (Malusà et al., 2016) and Taiwan orogens indicate instead that the detrital signal in these settings only reflects processes limited to surprisingly small areas.Detrital signals, in fact, are determined by various controlling factors, including short-term erosion rate and fertility of the target mineral in eroded bedrock. Moreover, different grains of the same mineral may have different chemical composition, hence different durability to diagenesis and metamorphism, and - last but not least - propensity to be dated by radiometric methods (Malusà and Fitzgerald, 2019).In the Po Plain sedimentary sink south of the Alps, the combined effect of apatite fertility and erosion rates determines a virtually-exclusive contribution of apatites with young cooling ages from the high-fertility Lepontine dome (Malusà et al., 2017).In Taiwan, the same approach indicates that apatite contribution to river sediments is dominated by only a small area along the backbone of the orogen. Fast exhumation and low U concentration result in a great abundance of zero-track grains that, if ignored, lead to a misinterpretation of the location of erosional foci and to an underestimation of long-term erosion rates.CITED REFERENCESGarver, J. I., Brandon, M. T., Roden-Tice, M., & Kamp, P. J. (1999). Exhumation history of orogenic highlands determined by detrital fission-track thermochronology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 154(1), 283-304.Malusà, M. G., and Fitzgerald, P. G., eds (2019). Fission-Track Thermochronology and its Application to Geology (393 pp). Springer.Malusà, M. G., Resentini, A., & Garzanti, E. (2016). Hydraulic sorting and mineral fertility bias in detrital geochronology. Gondwana Research, 31, 1-19.Malusà, M. G., Wang, J., Garzanti, E., Liu, Z. C., Villa, I. M., & Wittmann, H. (2017). Trace-element and Nd-isotope systematics in detrital apatite of the Po river catchment: Implications for provenance discrimination and the lag-time approach to detrital thermochronology. Lithos, 290, 48-59. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Indus River, one of Asia's premier rivers, drains the western Tibetan Plateau and the Nanga Parbat syntaxis. These two areas juxtapose some of the lowest and highest topographic relief and commensurate denudation rates in the Himalaya-Tibet orogen, respectively, yet the spatial pattern of denudation rates upstream of the syntaxis remains largely unclear, as does the way in which major rivers drive headward incision into the Tibetan Plateau. We report a new inventory of 10Be-based basinwide denudation rates from 33 tributaries flanking the Indus River along a 320 km reach across the western Tibetan Plateau margin. We find that denudation rates of up to 110 mm k.y.-1 in the Ladakh and Zanskar Ranges systematically decrease eastward to 10 mm k.y. -1 toward the Tibetan Plateau. Independent results from bulk petrographic and heavy mineral analyses support this denudation gradient. Assuming that incision along the Indus exerts the base-level control on tributary denudation rates, our data show a systematic eastward decrease of landscape downwearing, reaching its minimum on the Tibetan Plateau. In contrast, denudation rates increase rapidly 150-200 km downstream of a distinct knickpoint that marks the Tibetan Plateau margin in the Indus River longitudinal profile. We infer that any vigorous headward incision and any accompanying erosional waves into the interior of the plateau mostly concerned reaches well below this plateau margin. Moreover, reported long-term (>106 yr) exhumation rates from low-temperature chronometry of 0.1-0.75 mm yr-1 consistently exceed our 10Be-derived denudation rates. With averaging time scales of 10³-104 yr for our denudation data, we report postglacial rates of downwearing in a tectonically idle landscape. To counterbalance this apparent mismatch, denudation rates must have been higher in the Quaternary during glacial-interglacial intervals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]