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The language of behavior analysis is precise in the sense that it focuses attention on functional relations between behavior and the environment that are extended in time. However, to non-behavior analysts, behavior-analytic terms and explanations are difficult to understand and awkward sounding. Evidence suggests that this has had deleterious effects on the acceptance of the field of behavior analysis and its explanations of behavior. The goal of this article is to assert that verbal behavior that describes behavior is functionally related to subsequent explanatory verbal behavior. In addition, it is argued that technical language is not a requirement of precision and logical formulation. Suggestions are made regarding how behavior analysts can generate evidence to better understand explanatory preferences of individuals with various amounts of exposure to behavior analysis. In addition, methods are suggested for introducing behavior analysis to others with vernacular descriptions of behavior and its causes that do not obscure critical distinctions by introducing mental/mediational explanations.

Background: It is unclear how anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction (ACLR) affects the development of osteoarthritis (OA). This uncertainty is partly caused by the lack of long-term studies on ACL injuries treated primarily without reconstruction and the underreporting of symptomatic OA. Purpose: To determine (1) the knee function, symptoms, and activity level, as well as the presence of radiographic and symptomatic OA; (2) how these clinical outcomes have changed over time; and (3) the frequency of subsequent knee surgeries after the index ACL injury in a cohort of patients with ACL injuries treated primarily without reconstruction. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: A total of 100 patients underwent initial nonoperative treatment >30 years ago (mean, 33.2 ± 1.4 years). Of these, 81 patients (mean age, 59 ± 8 years) completed the Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS), Lysholm Knee Scoring Scale, and Tegner Activity Scale. Seventy-three patients underwent radiography to evaluate tibiofemoral and patellofemoral OA in the ACL-injured knee. Patients only underwent late ACLR if they experienced insufficient knee stability. Results: At 33 years after the ACL injury, the KOOS Activities of Daily Living subscore was better than population-based reference values, but scores were similar for the remaining KOOS subscales. Furthermore, 65% of patients had a good or excellent Lysholm score (≥84 points). The Tegner score decreased 4 points from before the injury to 33-year follow-up (P <.001). Most patients (75%) had evidence of radiographic tibiofemoral and/or patellofemoral OA, but only 38% were classified as having symptomatic OA (defined as radiographic OA in combination with a symptomatic knee according to cutoffs on the KOOS). Approximately 50% underwent meniscal surgery, and 29% subsequently underwent ACLR for recurrent instability. There were 2 patients who underwent total knee replacement. Conclusion: Despite a high prevalence of radiographic OA, patients achieved acceptable subjective knee function and had a relatively low prevalence of symptomatic OA at >30 years after an ACL injury when an initial nonoperative treatment strategy was employed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The topic of intention has recently received attention from behavior analysts (Hineline, 2003; Neuman, 2004). From a behavior-analytic perspective, it is important to identify the circumstances in which people utter such terms, and to identify the potential circumstances that maintain such utterances. It follows that from a behavior-analytic perspective, the focus is primarily on those who observe behavior and attribute intentions to that behavior. However, there has not been a distinction between "intention" and "intentionality." The current analysis stresses the distinction between the two terms, both from a traditional point of view (psychologist and layperson) and from a behavior-analytic point of view. From a behavior analyst's perspective, the distinction is important because observers may be responding to distinct functional relations when they attribute intention or intentionality to behavior. (Contains 2 footnotes.)

Byline: Paul Neuman, MD (Department of Orthopedics, Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Malmo, Sweden, paul.neuman@skane.se); Martin Englund, MD, PhD (Department of Orthopedics, Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden, Clinical Epidemiology Research [...]

Byline: Ioannis Kostogiannis, MD (Department of Orthopaedics, Lund University, ioannis.kostogiannis@med.lu.se); Eva Ageberg, PT, PhD (Division of Physiotherapy, Lund University, Lund, Sweden); Paul Neuman, MD (Department of Orthopaedics, Lund University); Leif [...]

Background: The activity level and subjective knee function after an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury treated without reconstruction have not been well elucidated. Hypothesis: Patients with ACL injury can achieve [...]

The authors discuss experiments which used pigeons to choose between fixed-ratio and progressive schedules of reinforcement. Methodology, research results and data analysis are included.

Research using concurrent-chains schedules shows that pigeons make choice patterns according to the relative position of food reinforcers in experimental conditions. The sums-of-reciprocals principle was used to calculate choice responses at varying food reinforcer distances. These are shown and discussed. The average median switch points are given.

Background and purpose — The optimal treatment for traumatic cartilage injuries remains unknown. Contrast-enhanced MRI of cartilage (dGEMRIC) evaluates cartilage quality and a low dGEMRIC index may predict radiographic osteoarthritis (OA). The purpose of this study was (a) to explore the results 17 years after surgical treatment of an isolated cartilage knee injury and (b) to evaluate the predictive value of dGEMRIC. Patients and methods — 16 knees with an isolated traumatic cartilage injury of the medial femoral condyle had cartilage repair surgery either by microfracture or autologous cartilage implantation. dGEMRIC of the injured knee was performed 2 years after surgery and radiographic examinations were performed 17 years after the operation. Results — Radiographic OA was present in 12 of 16 knees. Irrespective of surgical method, the dGEMRIC index was lower in repair tissue compared with adjacent cartilage in the medial compartment, 237 ms vs. 312 ms (p < 0.001), which in turn had lower value than in the non-injured lateral cartilage, 312 ms vs. 354 ms (p < 0.008). The dGEMRIC index in the cartilage adjacent to the repair tissue correlated negatively with radiographic osteophyte score, r = -0.75 (p = 0.03). Interpretation — A traumatic cartilage injury is associated with a high prevalence of OA after 17 years. The low dGEMRIC index in the repair tissue 2 years postoperatively indicates fibrocartilage of low quality. The negative correlation between the dGEMRIC index in the adjacent cartilage and future OA suggests that the quality of the surrounding cartilage influences outcome after cartilage repair surgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose —Several randomized controlled trials have not shown any added benefit of arthroscopy over placebo surgery or physiotherapy in middle-aged patients with knee symptoms without trauma. We studied the characteristics of the knee arthroscopies performed in southern Sweden. Patients and methods —From the orthopedic surgical records from 2007–2009 in the Skåne region of Sweden (with a population of 1.2 million), we retrieved ICD-10 diagnostic codes and selected all 4,096 arthroscopies that were diagnosed peroperatively with code M23.2 (derangement of meniscus due to old tear or injury) or code M17 (knee osteoarthritis). We extracted information on cartilage and meniscus status at arthroscopy, and we also randomly sampled 502 of these patients from the regional archive of radiology and analyzed the preoperative prevalence of radiographic or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-defined osteoarthritis. Results —2,165 (53%) of the 4,096 arthroscopies had the diagnostic code M23.2 or M17. In this subgroup, 1,375 cases (64%) had typical findings consistent with degenerative meniscal tear (i.e. that correspond to a degenerative meniscal tear in at least a third ofallarthroscopies). Of the randomly sampled patients, the preoperative prevalence of radiological knee osteoarthritis was 46%. Interpretation —There is a discrepancy between evidence-based medicine treatment guidelines and clinical practice regarding the amount of knee arthroscopies performed in patients with symptoms of degenerative knee disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of different severities in bladder dysfunction on corpus cavernosum physiology, morphology and expression of Rho-kinase in rabbits. Methods Male New Zealand rabbits were divided into control, 2 and 8 weeks of partial bladder outlet obstruction (PBOO) groups. Isolated cavernosal strips from all groups were precontracted with phenylephrine and the relaxant responses to electrical field stimulation (EFS), ATP, acetylcholine, and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) were determined. Histological and molecular studies were performed. Results Corpus cavernosum smooth muscle (CCSM) from 8 weeks obstruction rabbits showed significant decreases in the contractile response to phenylephrine and further decreased relaxation responses to EFS in comparison to 2 weeks group. Relaxation induced by ATP, acetylcholine, and SNP were all significantly diminished at both 2 and 8 weeks obstruction equally. The ratio of smooth muscle to collagen decreased at 2 weeks and further dropped at 8 weeks obstruction. Expression of both isoforms of Rho-kinase were increased in both obstruction groups at 2 weeks obstruction and decreased significantly (from the 2 week obstructed values) at 8 weeks while remaining above control values. Conclusion The present study indicated that severe bladder dysfunction secondary to chronic PBOO induced significant physiological dysfunctions of CCSM as well as morphological changes. Activities of both ROK isoenzymes showed increases at 2- and 8-week obstructions. Increase in Rho-kinase expression/activity would be expected to make the CCSM more difficult to relax and also contribute to reduction of EFS-induced relaxation of CCSM after chronic PBOO. Neurourol. Urodynam. 27:826-831, 2008, © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have demonstrated that partial bladder outlet obstruction (PBOO) in the rabbit induces an increase in corpus cavernosum smooth muscle (CCSM) tone, which may make it difficult for the CCSM to relax. Thus, to determine whether the corpus cavernosum restores relaxation after reversal of PBOO, we investigated the physiologic, histologic, and cell biology in penises obtained from rabbits 4 weeks and 8 weeks after reversal of PBOO. CCSM from bladder outlet-obstructed and obstruction-reversed rabbits showed significant decreases in the contractile responses to phenylephrine. The relaxation responses to electrical field stimulation (EFS), ATP, acetylcholine, and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) were decreased in obstructed and reversed for 4 weeks groups. By 8 weeks of reversal, the relaxation of CCSM was increased gradually in response to EFS, SNP, and acetylcholine. However, the response to ATP did not result in the relaxation of CCSM to control levels. The ratio of SM to collagen decreased after obstruction and remained low after reversal. Expression of both isoforms of Rho kinase (ROK) was increased in obstruction groups. At 4 weeks of reversal, the expression of ROK alpha remained at obstruction level, whereas ROK beta expression decreased in comparison with the obstruction group. By 8 weeks of reversal, expression of both ROK alpha and beta significantly decreased when compared with the obstruction group. These results suggested that the poor relaxation response at reversal of 4 weeks was associated with incomplete decreased expression of both isoforms of ROK, whereas the incomplete recovery of the CCSM relaxation response at reversal of 8 weeks may be associated with structural alterations in the CC and irreversible damage from PBOO.