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Recruiting neurodiverse talent has increasingly featured on the organizational diversity agenda, yet recruitment practices geared toward locating and attracting neurodivergent candidates remain understudied. While research and practice have shown that employee referral is one of the channels through which a significant part of new talent is recruited, little is known about employees' willingness to refer qualified social contacts who are neurodivergent. We address this limitation by investigating employees' willingness to refer highly qualified candidates on the autism spectrum and some conditions under which they are more or less likely to refer such candidates. We explore these aspects in a study of working individuals, using a mixed‐method approach. The quantitative analysis shows that disclosure of an autism condition to potential referrers might pose some advantage, in that it increases the likelihood of being referred, but this advantage accrues only to male candidates. Furthermore, cues that hint at the social dimension of the "ideal worker," commonly used in job recruitment materials, are the strongest deterrent for referrers. The qualitative analysis of the reasons behind decisions to refer sheds light on some mechanisms that might explain these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Supporting neurodivergent‐inclusive workplaces is an increasingly important consideration in Human Resource Management (HRM). While a strengths‐based approach to neurodivergence has been advocated, empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of HRM practices that support high‐quality employment outcomes for neurodivergent people is lacking. Drawing on a nationally representative sample of over 25,000 people in the United Kingdom, we examine the influence of neurodivergence on multiple employment outcomes, including employment status, underemployment, employment precarity, job tenure, and hourly wages. We theorize and empirically examine how flexible‐ and homeworking practices moderate the effects of neurodivergence on employment outcomes. Our findings show that neurodivergent people are twice as likely to be in precarious employment and more than 10 times as likely to be in temporary employment compared to neurotypical people. Neurodivergent individuals are also significantly more likely to experience underemployment and have lower employment tenure; however, controlling for other factors, we find no significant differences in hourly wages. We find that flexible working practices can substantially improve employment outcomes for neurodivergent people, raising significant questions regarding the role of HRM in enabling more neurodiverse workplaces. We critically reflect on the implications of our findings for policy, practice, and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Medicalization shapes, and in some cases legitimizes, individuals' embodied experiences even as it molds the landscape of healthcare and treatment. In this essay I provide a layered account that moves between my experiences as a neurodivergent person and academic theorizing to explore how processes of medicalization inform public discourses and personal sensemaking. In the case of ADHD, medicalization has contributed to societal narratives that focus on symptoms of hyperactivity rather than the etiology of dopamine dysregulation. Such narratives fail to fully account for the lived experience of ADHD and inadvertently stigmatize neurodivergent individuals. I urge scholars and practitioners to direct more attention to the communicative dimensions of medicalization including both the rhetorical nature of the diagnostic process and how diagnoses, in turn, are rhetorically framed with varying consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Method Results Interpretation To examine neurobehavioral findings in three genetic syndromes (PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome, Malan syndrome [mutations in the NFIX gene], and SYNGAP1‐related disorder), a mixed group of other neurodevelopmental genetic syndromes (NDGS), idiopathic neurodevelopmental disorder, and neurotypical control participants.Using a longitudinal case–control design, caregivers reported neurobehavioral information for 498 participants (PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome n = 112, Malan syndrome n = 24, SYNGAP1‐related disorder n = 47, other NDGS n = 72, idiopathic neurodevelopmental disorder n = 54, neurotypical siblings n = 74, and unrelated neurotypical control participants n = 115) at three timepoints (baseline, and 1‐month and 4‐month follow‐ups) using the online‐administered Neurobehavioral Evaluation Tool (NET).NET scales had good scale and test–retest reliability. Unique patterns of neurobehavioral findings emerged, with SYNGAP1‐related disorder and Malan syndrome showing generally more severe symptom and skill patterns than for other groups of patients. Patterns could be partly accounted for by estimated cognitive level, speech level, and the presence of autism spectrum disorder. However, even when accounting for these factors, group differences remained. Reliable change indices are reported.Genetic syndromes associated with neurodevelopmental disorders present with unique neurobehavioral profiles that can inform selection of outcome measures in future clinical trials. The NET may be a useful screening and monitoring instrument in clinical practice, where frequent in‐person clinic attendance is difficult for many patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • N400 and P600 ERPs evoked in adolescents ignoring sentences with semantic errors. • Semantic processing is fundamentally different in passive versus active contexts. • We provide 22 control adolescent high-density electrophysiological BIDs datasets. Language comprehension requires semantic processing of individual words and their context within a sentence. Well-characterized event-related potential (ERP) components (the N400 and late positivity component (LPC/P600)) provide neuromarkers of semantic processing, and are robustly evoked when semantic errors are introduced into sentences. These measures are useful for evaluating semantic processing in clinical populations, but it is not known whether they can be evoked in more severe neurodevelopmental disorders where explicit attention to the sentence inputs cannot be objectively assessed (i.e., when sentences are passively listened to). We evaluated whether N400 and LPC/P600 could be detected in adolescents who were explicitly ignoring sentence inputs. Specifically, it was asked whether explicit attention to spoken inputs was required for semantic processing, or if a degree of automatic processing occurs when the focus of attention is directed elsewhere? High-density ERPs were acquired from twenty-two adolescents (12–17 years), under two experimental conditions: 1. individuals actively determined whether the final word in a sentence was congruent or incongruent with sentence context, or 2. passively listened to background sentences while watching a video. When sentences were ignored, N400 and LPC/P600 were robustly evoked to semantic errors, albeit with reduced amplitudes and protracted/delayed latencies. Statistically distinct topographic distributions during passive versus active paradigms pointed to distinct generator configurations for semantic processing as a function of attention. Covert semantic processing continues in neurotypical adolescents when explicit attention is withdrawn from sentence inputs. As such, this approach could be used to objectively investigate semantic processing in populations with communication deficits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The International Journal of Exercise Science (IJES) Working Group for Opportunity, Representation, and Diverse Perspectives was tasked with developing a position stand to provide guidance in critical areas of inclusion. We present to authors, reviewers, and all readership IJES ideals to utilize in practice. Key points are presented, followed by a deeper look with greater explanation into the areas of inclusive language, diversity and inclusion in research, and accessibility. The same approach is presented for the areas of age, disability status, gender identity and sexual orientation, race, and ethnicity with attention to Indigenous Communities, religion, socioeconomic status, and neurodiversity. Person-first language is encouraged, with the acknowledgment that the preference of different community members may vary. IJES is committed to maintaining an environment that is welcoming to all identities so that they feel valued, respected, and included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrieval practice—the process of actively calling information to mind rather than passively studying materials—has been proven to be a highly effective learning strategy. However, only recently, researchers have started to examine differences between learners in terms of the optimal conditions of retrieval practice in applied educational settings. In this study (N = 118), we focus on learners with dyslexia. We compare their performance to the performance of typical learners in an adaptive retrieval practice task using both typing‐based and speech‐based response conditions. We find that typical learners outperform learners with dyslexia when they are asked to respond by typing, but that this difference disappears when learners respond by speech. Using a mathematical model to decompose response times, we demonstrate that this typing‐specific disadvantage in learners with dyslexia is mainly a consequence of processing delays, rather than poorer memory performance. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying declarative learning in dyslexia, and they can be used to tailor educational technology toward the needs of neurodiverse learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For decades, the Nordic countries have been admired for their inclusive education systems within egalitarian societies, bolstered by PISA studies and global calls to ensure inclusive education as a human right. This paper contrasts idealised perspectives on Nordic education with internal experiences, exploring recent challenges to the relationship between special and inclusive education. Using Sweden as a case study, it highlights internal diversity within the Nordic region, showing differing paths and gaps between research, policy and school realities. The risks of idealising past educational models are discussed, noting that Sweden, once known for its egalitarian education and low special education needs classification rates, now faces higher classification rates and more separate provision due to policy changes. Recent trends have shown a shift towards increased diagnosis and classification, influenced by marketisation and decentralisation policies. The paper focuses on neurodivergence, analysing shifts in government priorities, teacher education, school practices and research agendas. Analysis of recent policies, reports and educational data reveals winners and losers in school participation, providing insights into the implications for educational discourse, the future of the ‘Nordic model’, and Swedish education in a global context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The conceptualisation of autism as a disorder where Theory of Mind (ToM) and pragmatics are fundamentally impaired has prompted a wealth of research on autistic deficits, most of which is characterised by two main assumptions: first, that autistic people would display said deficits, if present, with any conversation partner and in any situation; second, that neurotypical people do not present these deficits, regardless of the conversation partner. However, this is not necessarily reflected in autistic accounts of the way they experience social cognition and pragmatics. Aims: The present paper aims to investigate the autistic experience of communication with both autistic and neurotypical people, with a particular focus on their perception of the ability of autistic and neurotypical people to understand their communicative intentions. Methods & Procedures: Participants, 23 adult Italian autistic people without intellectual disability or language disorders, were recruited online. Two virtual focus groups of 2 hours each were conducted, transcribed and analysed through thematic analysis with a descriptive phenomenological approach by two independent researchers. Outcomes & Results: Six themes were developed from the analysis, the most relevant being Autistic–Autistic communication and Autistic ToM. The results, in line with the Double Empathy theory, suggest there seem to be important differences between neurotypical and autistic people's ToM. These appear to make it easier for autistic people to communicate with one another, as well as to create difficulties for neurotypical people to understand autistic people, not just the other way around. Conclusions & Implications: These results seem to confirm that challenges in cross‐neurotype communication are better interpreted as mutual miscomprehension and reciprocal differences in ToM rather than deficits on the autistic part. This calls for a reframing of ToM and/or the need for autistic ToM as a construct, of which neurotypical people seem to be lacking. Moreover, these insights should be taken into account for speech and language therapy and clinical practice in general, advocating for a neurodiversity‐informed view of co‐constructed communication as well as for a broader societal change in which therapists can play a crucial role, through participatory approaches or raising awareness in their daily practice. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject: Autism is conceived as characterised by social cognition and communication difficulties, often linked to Theory of Mind (ToM) deficits. However, recent research suggested variations in ToM abilities within the autistic population and proposed alternative theories like the Double Empathy theory. Nevertheless, only a few studies examined how autistic individuals perceive communication across neurotypes. What this study adds: Autistic individuals seem to find it easier to communicate with other autistic people, and they identify specific characteristics of neurotypical communication that hinder successful communication. Moreover, neurotypical people are perceived as having difficulties in autistic ToM, which seems to emerge as a relevant and needed construct in light of the Double Empathy problem. What are the clinical implications of this work?: These findings can inform speech and language therapy and clinical practice about the potential gains of raising awareness on the Double Empathy problem and the higher communication ease inside the autistic community, alongside individualised support. Participatory approaches and closer collaboration with the autistic community also seem to be crucial for therapists to help improve communication experiences for autistic individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract\nPoints of interestThe Neurodiversity Movement has made great strides in persuading against pathologizing of neurodiversity and instead for celebration and inclusion of neurodivergent people. Providing an appraisal of where we are, and where we should focus our efforts based on existing theory, this article considers the theoretical basis for achieving a neuroinclusive society through designing/redesigning human social and physical infrastructure for neuroinclusivity. Complementing and activating Double Empathy Theory, interrelated with Dialectical Misattunement Hypothesis, it argues development of relational (neurodiversity paradigm and ecological functional model) human-rights-rooted Triple Empathy Theory through interdisciplinary networks of research and practice can provide a neuroinclusive social and physical human environment. One supporting interpersonal dynamics which can propel reciprocal and dynamic attunements over time that provide the possibility of a virtuous cycle of increasing convergences in communication styles and interactions. Thereby reducing neurotypical dyspathy and neurodivergent adaptive morphing. Generating a culture where all neurotypes are empowered to achieve self-fulfilment.One in seven people are neurodivergent and there is growing awareness of inclusive design for all neurotypes.Double Empathy Theory challenges the idea autistic individuals lack empathy, instead attributing communication issues to mutual misunderstandings between autistic and non-autistic people.Dialectical Misattunement Hypothesis expands on this, exploring misattunements within and between neurotypes and how communication can be improved.Applying the findings of Double Empathy Theory/Dialectical Misattunement Hypothesis research into practice across society is essential for fostering neuroinclusive societies i.e. societies that support the flourishing of all neurotypes.The Triple Empathy Problem arises when designers must demonstrate double empathy for neurotypical and neurodivergent groups and also the third empathy to determine the solutions that will balance inclusivity for all neurotypes. Triple Empathy Theory is the practical knowledge needed to create neuroinclusive designs and systems across various sectors of society, influencing Universal Design and practice/legal codes.Development of Triple Empathy Theory through interdisciplinary networks of research and practice can provide a neuroinclusive social and physical human environment ensuring all neurotypes are supported.One in seven people are neurodivergent and there is growing awareness of inclusive design for all neurotypes.Double Empathy Theory challenges the idea autistic individuals lack empathy, instead attributing communication issues to mutual misunderstandings between autistic and non-autistic people.Dialectical Misattunement Hypothesis expands on this, exploring misattunements within and between neurotypes and how communication can be improved.Applying the findings of Double Empathy Theory/Dialectical Misattunement Hypothesis research into practice across society is essential for fostering neuroinclusive societies i.e. societies that support the flourishing of all neurotypes.The Triple Empathy Problem arises when designers must demonstrate double empathy for neurotypical and neurodivergent groups and also the third empathy to determine the solutions that will balance inclusivity for all neurotypes. Triple Empathy Theory is the practical knowledge needed to create neuroinclusive designs and systems across various sectors of society, influencing Universal Design and practice/legal codes.Development of Triple Empathy Theory through interdisciplinary networks of research and practice can provide a neuroinclusive social and physical human environment ensuring all neurotypes are supported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers some of the hidden challenges which may be faced by the neurodiverse academic. The neurodiverse academic, at times, can be seen as something 'hidden', remaining undisclosed due to the challenges which can be faced by making this declaration to colleagues and employers. As a result, our voices are often not heard, and, thus, the difficulties we face overlooked. This has begun to be addressed for the student within higher education, but not the academic. Within this paper I, therefore, reflect on my experience as a dyslexic academic. I consider the challenges of excess labour, increasingly needed to 'make it' in academia today, the pressures this creates and impact on mental health. I, also, highlight the divergence, from non-disabled colleagues, which can exist in access to development opportunities. I provide this account to challenge assumptions and spur a research agenda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundMethodsResultsConclusionDespite commitment across national medical education and training bodies to tackle differential attainment (DA), alongside a wealth of research into contributing factors and solutions, progression in narrowing the gap has lagged. This study explores the lived experiences of doctors facing DA, career progression barriers and their wider consequences.Interpretative phenomenological analysis was chosen as the methodological framework. The six doctors interviewed were released from General Practice training before enrolling in a ‘targeted’ intervention scheme designed to support them with training completion.The cohort included four international medical graduates and two graduates from the United Kingdom. Three participants were neurodiverse. Three inter-related themes were identified. 1) ‘Career insecurity’ is defined as uncertainty about career prospects and attainment of career goals. At varying points along their journey navigating through progression barriers, participants frequently questioned their futures and the decision to persist in the arduous pursuit of training completion. 2) ‘Psychological injury’ featured prominently in the experiences of the ‘targeted trainees’. Feelings of worthlessness, helplessness, low energy and mood, and ‘traumatic’ experiences were described. 3) ‘Social injury’ illustrates consequences to doctors’ familial and social contexts (including relationships), as well as wider societal consequences (such as attrition).Our research evidences the consequences of DA and career progression barriers. We highlight the urgent need for escalated efforts in addressing the challenges faced by different groups of doctors and narrowing the attainment gap. Recommendations for interventions are included in our study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Aims Methods Results Conclusion Whilst there is increasing recognition and interest in how staff who have neurodivergence are represented and contribute to industry, to date, there has been very little exploration of neurodivergence among healthcare staff and none with those working in forensic psychiatric services.To estimate the prevalence of neurodivergence among staff working in a UK high‐secure psychiatric hospital and explore their experiences.All staff were invited to complete a confidential online self‐report questionnaire consisting of both closed and open questions.A fifth of the staff responded (n = 124), but two did not report their neurodivergent status, so were excluded. Nearly 40% of responders reported having some form of neurodivergence, with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) being the most common, followed by dyslexia, autism and dyspraxia. Over a third (36%) of those reporting neurodivergence said that they had chosen not to disclose this to the organisation and around a quarter (23%) reported not feeling valued or supported by the organisation. Of the staff cohort who responded, most expressed the view that neurodiversity in the workforce is beneficial to patient care, despite the majority being unsure whether neurodivergence is an advantage or a barrier for the individual themselves. Over half of staff completing the survey felt there was not enough awareness of neurodiversity among staff and that more training on the subject would be beneficial.This survey suggests gaps in our recognition and understanding of neurodivergence among hospital staff. Although the prevalence figure should be treated with caution, given the low response rate, in this first survey of neurodivergence among staff in a secure hospital, our findings suggest substantial numbers of staff with neurodivergence and the likelihood that neither they nor the organisation are optimising this situation. The further steps should include the development and evaluation of strategies exploring ways of improving recognition and relevant support for staff, as well as discovering ways in which neurodivergence in staff might inform and optimise care and treatment for patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Camouflaging, the strategies that some autistic people use to hide their differences, has been hypothesized to trigger mental health ramifications. Camouflaging might reflect ubiquitous impression management experiences that are not unique to autistic people and similarly impact the mental health of non-autistic people. Aims: We first examined whether individuals in the general population camouflage and manage impressions while experiencing mental health repercussions, and how gender and neurodivergent traits modified these associations. We then assessed how camouflaging and impression management arose from internalized stigma, and their inter-relationships in shaping mental health outcomes. Methods: Data were collected from 972 adults from a representative U.S. general population sample, with measures pertaining to camouflaging, impression management, mental health, internalized stigma, and neurodivergent traits. Multivariate hierarchical regression and moderated mediation analyses were used to address the two research aims. Results: Both camouflaging and self-presentation (a key component of impression management) were associated with mental health presentations in the general population, which overlapped with those previously reported in autistic people. These associations were more pronounced in women compared with men and were of different directions for individuals with higher autistic traits versus higher ADHD traits. Internalized stigma might be a key stressor that could elicit camouflaging and impression management through social anxiety, which in turn might lead to adverse mental health outcomes. Conclusions: These findings advance the conceptual clarity and clinical relevance of camouflaging and impression management across social and neurodiverse groups in the general population. The ramifications of camouflaging and impression management underscore the need to alleviate internalized stigma for better mental health across human groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, disability readings of J. M. Coetzee's Life & Times of Michael K have engaged with the implications stemming from the protagonist's neurodiversity; however, this discourse can be expanded to account for his physical alterity. From birth, K is stigmatized for his cleft lip, a defining corporeal trait that aptly informs his "life and times." In response, this article argues, K develops a method for negotiating the ableist politics underscoring apartheid South Africa. He studies the body part for which he is stigmatized—mouths. Encountering a series of oral expressions, K gauges each to determine the extent of his participation within his war-torn milieu. Whereas his mother's smile conjures happiness and prompts engagement, the soldier's mocking grin is a threatening gesture from which K distances himself. This article suggests Coetzee's novel questions the state of personhood, asking not who is granted the dignities afforded to the liberal individual in apartheid South Africa, but what that individual must look like in order to experience affections such as compassion and respect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a paradoxical paradigm operating in neurodiverse families with autistic children, indicating increased stress alongside enrichment of family life. An emerging body of research has shown that the use of family therapy can improve family functioning and relationships in neurodiverse families. The current study uses constructivist grounded theory to explore clinicians' experiences and perceptions of utilising family therapy in the context of autism. Study findings suggest that clinicians integrate therapeutic techniques from diverse family therapy approaches to improve family relations by bridging different ways of learning and communicating as well as facilitating multiple perspectives. Integrating therapeutic techniques across diverse approaches further encompasses working with the systems around the individual with autism. To adapt family therapy in the context of autism, it is suggested that clinicians examine their own perspectives and beliefs about autism and keep a curious stance during the process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors share examples of local contexts that could contribute to the shaping of neurodiversity paradigms and movements in East Asia, complementing examples in other non-Western regions. Cited are the complexity of the linguistic nuances of the translated terms about autism in the historical and social-cultural contexts, the contribution of linguistic differences to the shaping of autism identities, and the difference of autism advocacy efforts by linguistic and social-cultural contexts.

Little is known about the nature of social anxiety in autistic people: What is similar and different about factors contributing to social anxiety in autistic and non-autistic people? There is also very limited research about autistic people's experiences of therapy for social anxiety in current routine clinical practice. This study investigated these issues by analysing responses to an online questionnaire for 308 adults with elevated social anxiety (232 autistic people and 76 non-autistic people) using mixed-methods approaches. Distinct factors influenced social anxiety in autistic participants, including individual and environmental factors relating to autistic experiences in the social world. We propose a 'distinct' model of social anxiety in autism. In addition, many participants had not had helpful experiences in therapy, especially cognitive behaviour therapy, for social anxiety: They thought therapists did not always acknowledge the basis of their social fears, did not adapt the therapy process in an individualised way and did not understand neurodiversity or recognise neurodivergence. Our results suggest that social anxiety needs to be understood specifically in the context of autism, and if this is neglected, therapy is unlikely to be helpful. Based on participants' comments, this article makes some practical recommendations for therapists supporting autistic adults with social anxiety. The nature of social anxiety has been widely researched in non-autistic people. This existing research has allowed therapists to develop effective therapy for social anxiety in non-autistic people. Meanwhile, some research suggests that autistic people may have different experiences of anxiety compared to non-autistic people. In addition, there is some evidence that modified therapy may help autistic people with social anxiety, although we also know that many autistic people feel failed by existing mental health services. This article provides a detailed picture of social anxiety in autistic people. This includes similarities and differences compared to non-autistic people. In terms of similarities, people often described feeling afraid that others would judge them, and this would have negative consequences. In terms of differences, autistic people commonly reported a clash between their traits and their social environment, which caused them distress and discomfort. This included factors only rarely reported by non-autistic people (such as struggling with too much sensory stimulation or inaccessible forms of communication and encountering discrimination for these problems). Based on this, we propose a 'distinct' model of social anxiety with particular relevance to autistic people. In addition, many participants reported negative experiences in therapy for social anxiety. They thought therapists wrongly viewed their fears of social situations as irrational and ungrounded. They thought therapists did not adapt the therapy process in an individualised way and did not understand neurodiversity or recognise neurodivergence. Standard approaches for social anxiety may not always suit autistic people, so this needs further exploration. We highlight several practical recommendations for therapists offering therapy for social anxiety to autistic people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurodiversity refers to the idea that all brains—no matter their differences—are valuable and should be accepted. Attitudes toward the neurodiversity perspective can have real-life impacts on the lives of neurodivergent people, from effects on daily interactions to how professionals deliver services for neurodivergent individuals. In order to identify negative attitudes toward neurodiversity and potentially intervene to improve them, we first need to measure these attitudes. This article describes the development and initial validation of the Neurodiversity Attitudes Questionnaire (NDAQ), including item revision based on expert review, cognitive interviews, systematic evaluation of participants' response process, and analysis of the instrument's internal factor structure using exploratory structural equation modeling. Pilot analysis with 351 individuals mostly living in the United States who were currently working in or intending to pursue helping professions indicates that the NDAQ has construct validity, is well understood by participants, and fits a five-factor structure. While the NDAQ represents the first instrument designed to specifically assess attitudes toward the neurodiversity perspective, further validation work is still needed. Neurodiversity refers to the idea that brain differences (including disabilities) are valuable and should be accepted. Attitudes toward neurodiversity can have real-life impacts on the lives of neurodivergent people (those whose brains do not fit society's "standard"). These impacts can include effects on daily interactions, as well as how professionals such as teachers and doctors deliver services to neurodivergent people. In order to identify negative attitudes toward neurodiversity and potentially improve them, we first need to measure these attitudes. This article describes the development of the Neurodiversity Attitudes Questionnaire (NDAQ). NDAQ development included revision of questionnaire items based on feedback from experts and neurodivergent people, systematically evaluating the way participants responded to questionnaire items, and analysis of how the NDAQ items are grouped into different factors. A preliminary analysis with 351 individuals mostly living in the United States who were currently working or planning to work in a helping profession (e.g. doctors, teachers, therapists, and so on) indicates that the NDAQ measures attitudes toward neurodiversity, is well understood by participants, and fits a five-factor structure. While the NDAQ represents the first instrument designed to specifically assess attitudes toward the broad idea of neurodiversity, further work is still needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our goal was to systematically identify, appraise and synthesise the qualitative research on parents' experiences of the autism assessment process. The empirical studies were quality appraised using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme tool. We synthesised the data using a meta-synthesis approach. Parents' experiences were categorised into four phases namely: the pre-identification phase, the identification process, emotional reactions to the identification of the children as autistic and the post-identification phase. Informed by the social and human rights discourse on disability, we provide recommendations for future research, respecting the rights of all concerned. We discuss the implications of this review for future research into the autism assessment process. Parents consistently mentioned the importance of professional communication and we make recommendations for research on parent–professional partnerships. Given the sensitivities of the issues, we draw attention to ethical considerations when conducting research on the autism assessment process. Finally, we address the strategies that professionals can adopt in applying neurodiversity-affirmative approaches when identifying autistic children and supporting their parents. Hearing about parents' experiences of having their child recognised as autistic could help improve the supports offered to parents. Our article may also help guide future research on this topic. We made a list of the type of research that interested us. We searched the studies already completed, only studying the research that matched our interests. After reading the studies, we rated their quality using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme tool. It became clear that parents went through four phases during the identification process. The first phase occurred before their child was identified as autistic. The second involved the actual assessment of their child. Parents' emotional reactions to the news were the focus of the third phase. The final phase occurred after their child was identified as autistic. We discuss the findings of our research. As there are sensitivities involved in conducting research on this topic, we identify how researchers can ensure that their research is of the best quality. We are committed to respecting the human rights of all involved, so we emphasise the need for professionals to develop good relationships with the parents of autistic children. Researchers have recently come to see autism as typical of human diversity. We encourage the professionals involved to adopt this understanding of autistic children and make practical suggestions to enable them to do so. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The anti-psychiatry movement of the 20th century has notably denounced the role of values and social norms in the shaping of psychiatric categories. Recent activist movements also recognize that psychiatry is value-laden, however, they do not fight for a value-free psychiatry. On the contrary, some activist movements of the 21st century advocate for self-advocacy in sciences of mental health in order to reach a more accurate understanding of psychiatric categories/mental distress. By aiming at such epistemic gain, they depart from the anti-psychiatry movement. Through the analysis of the epistemic and political influence of two of these movements – Neurodiversity and the Mad Studies, we show how this new activism has taken a scientific turn compatible with current philosophical scientific frameworks, while still developing a critical approach on psychiatry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autism is increasingly viewed as an expression of neurodiversity deserving accommodation, rather than merely as a disorder in need of remediation or even prevention. This reconceptualization has inspired calls to broaden the ethical debate on early autism care beyond matters of efficient screenings and effective interventions. We conducted 14 in-depth interviews with 26 parents of infants at an increased likelihood for autism (siblings, preterms and children with persistent feeding difficulties) to understand which benefits and risks these parents see for the implementation of a systematic, early autism detection program in our region. With this study, we aim to contribute empirically to the ethical debate on good and just early autism care in the age of neurodiversity. Data were analyzed according to the QUAGOL-methodology. Three main themes emerged from our analysis. In their evaluation of early autism detection, parents discussed how a diagnosis helps gain a different perspective fostering understanding and recognition for both child and parent. Second, a diagnosis supports parents in adjusting their parenting practices, to justify this deviation from "normal" parenting and to strive for such adjusted environments beyond the nuclear family. Third, an autism diagnosis induces ambiguities parents need to navigate, involving questions on whether and when to mobilize the diagnostic label and which language to use to talk about autism. We discuss the complex position of parents of a (potentially) autistic child in terms of moving back and forth across the ab/normal binary and describe implications for the ethical debate on early autism detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Disrupted interoception has been found in individuals with body image concerns and related psychiatric conditions (i.e., eating disorders, body dysmorphic disorder). However, few studies have explored the role of interoception in the relationship between body image concern and self‐objectification (SO). As components of the bodily self, interoception and body image may also contribute to the fostering of self‐consciousness. Methods: The current study estimated the network model of body image concern, adaptive and maladaptive interoceptive sensibility (IS), self‐consciousness, and SO, with data from 743 neurotypical adults. The centrality of nodes and the robustness of the network were verified. Results: Our network showed that interoception correlated with certain characteristics of body image concern (BIC) with varying strength and different directions. The most central node described beliefs of BIC, namely, negative evaluation toward appearance. Self‐objectification and maladaptive IS presented the highest bridge centrality. Interoception also linked BICs with SO and self‐consciousness. Conclusion: Findings suggested that SO, adaptive and maladaptive interoception might be the targets of intervention for individuals with BIC, specifically for those with high levels of appearance‐related negative self‐evaluations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is an exploration of writing qualitatively, a think-do with doctoral seminar guest scholars with/through words and painting as pre-verbal thought movement. After engaging with the perspectives and experiences of several qualitative researchers who work from relational and emergent onto-epistemologies, I began to regard writing qualitatively as a bodymind's thinking-doing using neurodiverse modes of expression. Through a cross-modal approach to exploring my writing process, I take readers through my journey of thinking about writing through painting and with paint, color, brushes, canvas, line, shape, and movement. Neurodiverse thought, communication, sensing, and perception, as well as verbal, non-verbal, and pre-verbal expression connect to movement between pre-articulation and articulation and to seminar discussions about relations, spirit, and flow when writing qualitatively. I conclude with an invitation for readers to engage with encounters that cross modes in thinking-doing as writing-and, where ARTiculation is foregrounded as embodied thinking, neurodiverse concept creating, and pre-verbal articulation for the communication of ideas and is experienced as being as adequate (and inadequate) for conveying meanings or findings as written language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of neurodiversity embraces the idea that there are many different ways of perceiving, thinking about and responding to the world around us. Yet, many countries -- including India, with its vast population -- still struggle with this concept. Societal perceptions and stereotypes surrounding neurodiversity, often fuelled by ignorance and misinformation, contribute to the marginalisation and exclusion experienced by neurodivergent individuals. This article discusses the challenges and opportunities that neurodivergent students in Indian higher education face, highlighting the urgent need for systemic change to co- create a more inclusive and equitable learning environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crip time is a fluid term with various definitions that pertain to the ways that disabled people experience time. In one sense, the effects of crip time can be constraining, particularly when it results in an encounter with ableist institutional and societal barriers. But crip time can also take on a liberatory form as a mode of resistance and a catalyst for structural change. This autoethnographic inquiry explores these various manifestations of crip time and will take form as a kind of crip time travel endeavour that recounts my experiences of temporality as a neurodivergent university art student. Framed through the mental imagery of the membrane and the vortex, I discuss the ways in which my neurodivergent student temporality collided and conflicted with the rigid temporal frameworks of neoliberal higher art education (HAE). I particularly focus on how HAE segments its programming into academic and artistic curricular time. I detail my difficulties keeping up with the academic curricular time to such an extent that the studio time and community time of artistic curricular time became lost or displaced time. Based on this crip time travel inquiry, I will acknowledge and move beyond a confining conception of crip time to offer insights into the liberatory potential of crip time towards reimagining temporal relations, reconceiving student success and opening time for neurodivergent students for critical making and thinking among a community of artist peers and mentors in HAE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Despite the growing international focus on neurodiversity, its explicit identification and incorporation into educational and workplace practices remain underdeveloped in Saudi Arabia. This study explores the indirect presence and characterisation of neurodiversity within Saudi Arabia through existing inclusive practices. The study aimed to analyse the prevalence and characteristics of neurodiversity practices in Saudi Arabia, using inclusive education, mainstreaming education, inclusive society, and inclusive work as indicators, and to develop a conceptual model for neurodiversity applicable both locally and globally. A content analysis was conducted on 33 studies related to inclusive practices in Saudi Arabia. Data were categorised into emergent themes to construct a conceptual model that encapsulates neurodiversity practices. The findings revealed eight categories representing neurodiversity practices: Teacher Preparedness and Training, Policy and Implementation, Inclusive Educational Practices, Assistive Technologies and Resources, Socio‐emotional and Health Support, Specialised Training and Professional Development, Student and Peer Perspectives, and Inclusive Infrastructure. The proposed conceptual model synthesises these categories, providing a structured depiction of neurodiversity practices in Saudi Arabia and offering a framework with international applicability. This study uncovers an implicit acknowledgment of neurodiversity and a foundational approach to inclusive practices within the Saudi Arabian context, parallel to global inclusive trends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Informal STEM settings offer valuable opportunities for students, including neurodiverse students, to engage and participate in STEM activities. However, there is a limited information on how to best engage and include neurodiverse students in informal STEM programming. This systematic review aimed to identify the programmatic elements that facilitated the inclusion of K-12 neurodiverse STEM learners in informal STEM programs. In this systematic review, an academic and grey literature search was conducted, where the search resulted in 2632 records and 18 records were included in the systematic review. Records that met inclusion criteria were independently reviewed and assessed for quality by two reviewers using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) or a project-based MMAT. This paper describes how informal STEM programs were designed and implemented to foster the participation of neurodiverse K-12 STEM learners. A qualitative synthesis approach was used to identify the programmatic elements that fostered neurodiverse learner participation. Most of the informal STEM programming for neurodiverse youth occurred in after-school settings and with students with autism. Programmatic elements that facilitated the participation of this population in informal STEM were grouped into three categories: (1) environment/learning structure, (2) learning supports, and (3) instructional strategies and tools. Future informal STEM programming and research should expand to include the neurodiverse population in already established informal STEM programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurodivergent students, including autistic students, often benefit from faculty support to navigate college challenges. To better equip faculty in their interactions with neurodivergent students and enhance their understanding, NeuroPREP, a faculty training program was developed. Comprising four 20‐min modules, NeuroPREP addresses key topics including neurodiversity, understanding neurodivergent needs and strengths, effective support strategies (e.g., universal design), and illustrative case studies. An Advisory Committee (N = 10), including faculty, autistic students, and disability support staff, assessed the social validity and perceived effectiveness of NeuroPREP through written forms and virtual sessions. On forms, Committee participants uniformly expressed positive ratings regarding the program's quality (i.e., language, content, impact, and format). Through individual interviews or focus group sessions, the Advisory Committee offered valuable feedback, suggesting improvements such as clarifying definitions, addressing misconceptions and stigmatizing language, and incorporating additional case scenarios. These recommendations informed the refinement of NeuroPREP in preparation for a pilot program. Higher education initiatives informed by stakeholders’ perspectives, like NeuroPREP, are vital for equipping faculty with the tools to foster inclusive educational environments and equitable educational experiences for neurodivergent students. Implications for practice will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although significant progress has been made in understanding the cortical correlates underlying balance control, these studies focused on a single task, limiting the ability to generalize the findings. Different balance tasks may elicit cortical activations in the same regions but show different levels of activation because of distinct underlying mechanisms. In this study, twenty young, neurotypical adults were instructed to maintain standing balance while the standing support surface was either translated or rotated. The differences in cortical activations in the frontocentral region between these two widely used tasks were examined using electroencephalography (EEG). Additionally, the study investigated whether transcranial magnetic stimulation could modulate these cortical activations during the platform translation task. Higher delta and lower alpha relative power were found over the frontocentral region during the platform translation task when compared to the platform rotation task, suggesting greater engagement of attentional and sensory integration resources for the former. Continuous theta burst stimulation over the supplementary motor area significantly reduced delta activity in the frontocentral region but did not alter alpha activity during the platform translation task. The results provide a direct comparison of neural activations between two commonly used balance tasks and are expected to lay a strong foundation for designing neurointerventions for balance improvements with effects generalizable across multiple balance scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From a game of darts to neurorehabilitation, the ability to explore and fine tune our movements is critical for success. Past work has shown that exploratory motor behaviour in response to reinforcement (reward) feedback is closely linked with the basal ganglia, while movement corrections in response to error feedback is commonly attributed to the cerebellum. While our past work has shown these processes are dissociable during adaptation, it is unknown how they uniquely impact exploratory behaviour. Moreover, converging neuroanatomical evidence shows direct and indirect connections between the basal ganglia and cerebellum, suggesting that there is an interaction between reinforcement-based and error-based neural processes. Here we examine the unique roles and interaction between reinforcement-based and error-based processes on sensorimotor exploration in a neurotypical population. We also recruited individuals with Parkinson's disease to gain mechanistic insight into the role of the basal ganglia and associated reinforcement pathways in sensorimotor exploration. Across three reaching experiments, participants were given either reinforcement feedback, error feedback, or simultaneously both reinforcement & error feedback during a sensorimotor task that encouraged exploration. Our reaching results, a re-analysis of a previous gait experiment, and our model suggests that in isolation, reinforcement-based and error-based processes respectively boost and suppress exploration. When acting in concert, we found that reinforcement-based and error-based processes interact by mutually opposing one another. Finally, we found that those with Parkinson's disease had decreased exploration when receiving reinforcement feedback, supporting the notion that compromised reinforcement-based processes reduces the ability to explore new motor actions. Understanding the unique and interacting roles of reinforcement-based and error-based processes may help to inform neurorehabilitation paradigms where it is important to discover new and successful motor actions. Author summary: Reinforcement-based and error-based processes play a pivotal role in regulating our movements. Converging neuroanatomical evidence show interconnected reinforcement-based and error-based neural circuits. Yet is unclear how reinforcement-based and error-based processes interact to influence sensorimotor behavior. In our past work we showed that reinforcement-based and error-based processes are dissociable. Building on this work, here we show that these process can also interact to influence trial-by-trial sensorimotor behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Methods Results Conclusion Consumer and Community Involvement PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY Supporting daily living skill (DLS) development for autistic people is a component of occupational therapy practice. DLSs are essential for an increased quality of life (QoL), independent living, and community participation. Autistic young people experience poorer outcomes in terms of QoL and independent living than non‐autistic peers. Finding a balance between targeted DLS support to maximise independent living and improve QoL, while avoiding attempts to ‘normalise’ or ‘change’ autistic people, presents as a dilemma for therapists striving to align with neurodiversity‐affirming practice.This theoretical paper explored literature pertaining to DLS and the neurodiversity movement in the context of occupational therapy values and the Canadian Model of Occupational Participation. Consideration of whether targeted DLS support is neurodiversity‐affirming or whether occupational therapists are compelling autistic people to mimic behavioural norms perceived by society was discussed.DLSs are an important factor for maximising QoL, regardless of neurotype. Occupational therapy values align with the core tenets of the neurodiversity movement, and occupational therapists are equipped with the values and skills to support the development of DLSs utilising affirming practice.Occupational therapists should critically reflect on their practice to ensure alignment with the professions core values and recent occupational therapy models, to ensure affirming practice. Further research investigating DLS and neurodiversity‐affirming practice would benefit occupational therapists striving to align with neurodiversity‐affirming practice.No consumer or community involvement. Consumers have been considered throughout the development of this paper through their representation in the literature. This involved a process of reviewing the literature and considering it in the scope of the questions and how occupational therapy sits within the neurodiversity movement.It is important to help autistic people to learn to do everyday things. Everyday things include activities like showering, cleaning, and cooking. These things are important so that autistic people can live on their own. It has shown that autistic young people are less likely to be able to do everyday activities on their own. It is important that therapists help autistic people learn how to do everyday things; however, do not try and change who they are. This is because completing everyday activities is an important part of QoL for all people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundAimsMethodsResultsConclusionsEye movements reflect the cognitive-linguistic processing of neurotypical readers. Numerous reading related eye movement measures are associated with language processing, including first fixation duration, gaze duration, number of fixations, word skipping, and regressions. Eye movements have also been used to examine reading in neuro-atypical populations including persons with aphasia (PWA).This study aimed to determine whether eye movement measures obtained from connected text reading differ among persons with varying types of aphasia and neurotypical individuals, as well as whether eye movement measures are associated with language processing severity and reading comprehension ability in PWA.Twenty-four PWA and twenty-four age-matched control participants completed a connected text-reading eye-tracking task. The PWA also completed assessments to evaluate overall language processing severity and reading comprehension skills and to identify specific subtypes of aphasia.Persons with aphasia had shorter gaze duration, longer regression duration, and made more fixations than control participants, while no group differences emerged for first fixation duration or word skipping. Eye movement patterns did not differ among participants with anomic, Broca’s, or conduction/Wernicke’s. Language severity scores were a significant factor for gaze duration, while reading comprehension scores were not a significant factor for the eye movement measures examined.The findings support previous eye tracking literature that indicate different eye movement patterns for persons with aphasia during text reading relative to neurotypical controls. The findings also highlight that the selection of eye movement measures examined, the stimuli used, and procedural considerations may impact the pattern of results. The results from this study can be used to further determine which eye movement measures may be most suited for studying language processing during reading in neuro-atypical individuals and determine whether persons with aphasia use different strategies for reading comprehension than neurotypical individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, many philosophers have argued that to respect the moral equality of their citizens, states should be neutral toward certain forms of diversity among their populations. Areas in which the state neutrality has been advocated include, but are not limited to, citizens' different religions; languages; and sexual orientations. However, there remains an important area where its normative (ir)relevance has not been discussed: That of neurodiversity. After identifying several ways in which contemporary states disfavor the interests of neurodivergent groups relative to the neurotypical majority, including those of autistic people; dyslectic people; and people with ADHD, the most promising would be-justifications for such unequal treatment are considered. They maintain respectively that states only have to be neutral toward differences that feature in people's conceptions of the good life; that addressing the discussed neuro-inequalities is too costly, whether financially or otherwise; that doing so raises intolerable risks of a public backlash; and that a commitment to neuro-neutrality leads to overinclusion. None are found to be convincing across the board, which leads me to conclude that states should become significantly more neuro-neutral than they are today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The language that school professionals use to describe disabled students can reveal and perpetuate ableist assumptions. Professionals' language choices can also challenge ableist attitudes to help create more inclusive, equitable learning environments. This tutorial seeks to guide speech-language pathologists (SLPs) and other school professionals to identify ableist language, understand the ableist ideologies that such language reveals, and develop strategies to implement ways of communicating with and about disabled students that align with an anti-ableist stance. We offer a brief description of ableism in schools, describe models of disability and their varying alignments toward ableist ideologies, and identify ways in which language can reflect and perpetuate ableism. Using Individualized Education Program goals as an example, we examine the ways in which ableist language can manifest in school practices. Finally, we provide suggestions to guide SLPs and other school professionals to examine and change their language to better align with an anti-ableist stance. Conclusions: School professionals' language use is not neutral and may reveal and maintain ableist assumptions about disability and disabled students. While dismantling ableism requires systemic change, we suggest that individual professionals can use language in ways that resist ableism and powerfully impact their students' educational experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have found electroencephalogram (EEG) amplitude and scalp topography differences between neurotypical and neurological/neurosurgical groups, being interpreted at the cognitive level. However, these comparisons are invariably accompanied by anatomical changes. Critical to EEG are the so‐called volume currents, which are affected by the spatial distribution of the different tissues in the head. We investigated the effect of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)‐filled cavities on simulated EEG scalp data. We simulated EEG scalp potentials for known sources using different volume conduction models: a reference model (i.e., unlesioned brain) and models with realistic CSF‐filled cavities gradually increasing in size. We used this approach for a single source close or far from the CSF‐lesion cavity, and for a scenario with a distributed configuration of sources (i.e., a "cognitive event‐related potential effect"). The magnitude and topography errors between the reference and lesion models were quantified. For the single‐source simulation close to the lesion, the CSF‐filled lesion modulated signal amplitude with more than 17% magnitude error and topography with more than 9% topographical error. Negligible modulation was found for the single source far from the lesion. For the multisource simulations of the cognitive effect, the CSF‐filled lesion modulated signal amplitude with more than 6% magnitude error and topography with more than 16% topography error in a nonmonotonic fashion. In conclusion, the impact of a CSF‐filled cavity cannot be neglected for scalp‐level EEG data. Especially when group‐level comparisons are made, any scalp‐level attenuated, aberrant, or absent effects are difficult to interpret without considering the confounding effect of CSF. Previous studies have found electroencephalogram (EEG) amplitude and scalp topography differences between neurotypical and neurological/neurosurgical groups (whose brain damage leads to the presence of a cerebrospinal fluid‐filled cavity) being interpreted at the cognitive level. Via simulations of scalp‐level EEG patterns, we show that attenuated, aberrant, or absent effects in these comparisons are difficult to interpret without considering the confounding effect of CSF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a diverse profile of cognitive functions. Heterogeneity is observed among both baseline and comorbid features concerning the diversity of neuropathology in autism. Symptoms vary depending on the developmental stage, level of severity, or comorbidity with other medical or psychiatric diagnoses such as intellectual disability, epilepsy, and anxiety disorders. Method: The neurodiversity movement does not face variations in neurological and cognitive development in ASD as deficits but as normal non‐pathological human variations. Thus, ASD is not identified as a neurocognitive pathological disorder that deviates from the typical, but as a neuro‐individuality, a normal manifestation of a neurobiological variation within the population. Results: In this light, neurodiversity is described as equivalent to any other human variation, such as ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation. This review will provide insights about the neurodiversity approach in children and adults with ASD. Using a neurodiversity approach can be helpful when working with children who have autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Discussion: This method acknowledges and values the various ways that people with ASD interact with one another and experience the world in order to embrace the neurodiversity approach when working with children with ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Background Methods Results Conclusion Implications This configurative systematic review analyzed family‐centered creative arts therapies for children with autism to understand why and how they are done.Creative arts therapies and family‐centered practice are both beneficial for children with autism. Research combining both approaches—that is, family‐centered creative arts therapies—is emerging, and reported findings are promising. A deeper understanding of the theoretical influences and mechanisms of these therapies may generate new ways of thinking and working with families with children with autism.Following registration with PROSPERO and in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses) guidelines, a literature search was performed, resulting in 17 studies. Thematic analysis considered the studies in terms of theoretical influences, creative arts therapy components, and family‐centered components.The development‐in‐context perspective was a key theoretical influence. In addition to music and singing, body movement/physical activity was a prominent component of creative arts therapies. Verbal support as well as modeling behaviors and strategies to parents were salient family‐centered components.This systematic review reveals common principles, practices, and gaps in the existing literature and their relevance for families with children with autism.These findings bear implications for families, therapists, Certified Family Life Educators, and other professionals working with families with children with autism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenced by revolutionary mothering, activists of color, and radical feminists, this article explores Neurodivergent families through the lens of Disability Critical Race Theory. As a parent of an Autistic child, I embark on redefining my role by integrating art and design into community advocacy for Autistic communities. I challenge unjust stigmas by breaking visual cycles within social and clinical practices. This journey culminated in the creation of "KnoxRoxs," a photo zine dedicated to my Autistic son, aimed at increasing visibility for children of color in Neurodiverse communities. I emphasize the multifaceted nature of Neurodivergent mothering, involving caregiving, community engagement, and creative resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The notion that autistic individuals suffer from empathy deficiencies continues to be a widespread assumption, including in many areas of philosophy and cognitive science. In response to this, Damian Milton has proposed an interactional approach to empathy, namely the theory of the double empathy problem. According to this theory, empathy is fundamentally dependent on mutual reciprocity or salience rather than individual, cognitive faculties like theory of mind. However, the theory leaves open the question of what makes any salient interaction empathic in the first place. The aim of this paper is to integrate core tenets of the theory of the double empathy problem specifically with classical, phenomenological descriptions of empathy. Such an integration provides further conceptual refinement to the theory of the double empathy problem while recognizing its core tenets, but it also introduces important considerations of neurodiversity to classic, phenomenological descriptions of empathy. Points of interest: Dominant autism research continues to claim that autistic individuals lack empathy in some form or other. Critics of such claims argue that empathy is a two-way street where problems can emerge because of different people's social experiences and expectations. In philosophy, the tradition known as phenomenology has long studied empathy by examining how empathy is experienced. Insights from phenomenology further clarify when and how empathy can break down between autistic and non-autistic people. By including autistic and other diverse perspectives, phenomenological studies of empathy stand to benefit significantly in nuance and depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]