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Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a gut hormone released from enteroendocrine cells. CCK functions as an anorexigenic factor by acting on CCK receptors expressed on the vagal afferent nerve and hypothalamus with a synergistic interaction between leptin. In the gut, tastants such as amino acids and bitter compounds stimulate CCK release from enteroendocrine cells via activation of taste transduction pathways. CCK is also expressed in taste buds, suggesting potential roles of CCK in taste signaling in the peripheral taste organ. In the present study, we focused on the function of CCK in the initial responses to taste stimulation. CCK was coexpressed with type II taste cell markers such as Gα-gustducin, phospholipase Cβ2, and transient receptor potential channel M5. Furthermore, a small subset (~30%) of CCK-expressing taste cells expressed a sweet/umami taste receptor component, taste receptor type 1 member 3, in taste buds. Because type II taste cells are sweet, umami or bitter taste cells, the majority of CCK-expressing taste cells may be bitter taste cells. CCK-A and -B receptors were expressed in both taste cells and gustatory neurons. CCK receptor knockout mice showed reduced neural responses to bitter compounds compared with wild-type mice. Consistently, intravenous injection of CCK-Ar antagonist lorglumide selectively suppressed gustatory nerve responses to bitter compounds. Intravenous injection of CCK-8 transiently increased gustatory nerve activities in a dose-dependent manner whereas administration of CCK-8 did not affect activities of bitter-sensitive taste cells. Collectively, CCK may be a functionally important neurotransmitter or neuromodulator to activate bitter nerve fibers in peripheral taste tissues.

Here, we found that the PR domain protein Prdm8 serves as a key regulator of the length of the multipolar phase by controlling the timing of morphological transition. We used a mouse line with expression of Prdm8-mVenus reporter and found that Prdm8 is predominantly expressed in the middle and upper intermediate zone during both the late and terminal multipolar phases. Prdm8 expression was almost coincident with Unc5D expression, a marker for the late multipolar phase, although the expression of Unc5D was found to be gradually down-regulated to the point at which mVenus expression was gradually up-regulated. This expression pattern suggests the possible involvement of Prdm8 in the control of the late and terminal multipolar phases, which controls the timing for morphological transition. To test this hypothesis, we performed gain- and loss-of-function analysis of neocortical development by using in utero electroporation. We found that the knockdown of Prdm8 results in premature change from multipolar to bipolar morphology, whereas the overexpression of Prdm8 maintained the multipolar morphology. Additionally, the postnatal analysis showed that the Prdm8 knockdown stimulated the number of early born neurons, and differentiated neurons located more deeply in the neocortex, however, majority of those cells could not acquire molecular features consistent with laminar location. Furthermore, we found the candidate genes that were predominantly utilized in both the late and terminal multipolar phases, and these candidate genes included those encoding for guidance molecules. In addition, we also found that the expression level of these guidance molecules was inhibited by the introduction of the Prdm8 expression vector. These results indicate that the Prdm8-mediated regulation of morphological changes that normally occur during the late and terminal multipolar phases plays an important role in neocortical development.

The precise control of neuronal migration and morphological changes during differentiation is essential for neocortical development. We hypothesized that the transition of progenitors through progressive stages of differentiation involves dynamic changes in levels of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS), depending on cell requirements. We found that progenitors had higher levels of mtROS, but that these levels were significantly decreased with differentiation. The Prdm16 gene was identified as a candidate modulator of mtROS using microarray analysis, and was specifically expressed by progenitors in the ventricular zone. However, Prdm16 expression declined during the transition into NeuroD1-positive multipolar cells. Subsequently, repression of Prdm16 expression by NeuroD1 on the periphery of ventricular zone was crucial for appropriate progression of the multipolar phase and was required for normal cellular development. Furthermore, time-lapse imaging experiments revealed abnormal migration and morphological changes in Prdm16-overexpressing and -knockdown cells. Reporter assays and mtROS determinations demonstrated that PGC1a is a major downstream effector of Prdm16 and NeuroD1, and is required for regulation of the multipolar phase and characteristic modes of migration. Taken together, these data suggest that Prdm16 plays an important role in dynamic cellular redox changes in developing neocortex during neural differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five fundamental taste qualities (sweet, bitter, salty, sour, umami) are sensed by dedicated taste cells (TCs) that relay quality information to gustatory nerve fibers. In peripheral taste signaling pathways, ATP has been identified as a functional neurotransmitter, but it remains to be determined how specificity of different taste qualities is maintained across synapses. Recent studies demonstrated that some gut peptides are released from taste buds by prolonged application of particular taste stimuli, suggesting their potential involvement in taste information coding. In this study, we focused on the function of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in initial responses to taste stimulation. GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) null mice had reduced neural and behavioral responses specifically to sweet compounds compared to wild-type (WT) mice. Some sweet responsive TCs expressed GLP-1 and its receptors were expressed in gustatory neurons. GLP-1 was released immediately from taste bud cells in response to sweet compounds but not to other taste stimuli. Intravenous administration of GLP-1 elicited transient responses in a subset of sweet-sensitive gustatory nerve fibers but did not affect other types of fibers, and this response was suppressed by pre-administration of the GLP-1R antagonist Exendin-4(3-39). Thus GLP-1 may be involved in normal sweet taste signal transmission in mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glass transition temperature (Tg) of submicron-sized, carboxylated polymer particles dispersed in aqueous media, which were prepared by emulsion copolymerization of styrene, iso-butyl methacrylate, or methyl methacrylate with methacrylic acid, was measured at alkali or acidic pH region with a power compensation-type high sensitive differential scanning calorimeter. The Tg of relatively hydrophilic polymer particles was obviously decreased by the neutralization of the carboxyl groups with KOH, whereas that of hydrophobic polymer particles was not changed though water was absorbed therein. These results indicate that water absorption state, which means not only the amount of water absorption but also the heterogeneity of the ionized carboxylated polymer particles, markedly depends on the hydrophilicity of their base polymers. This strongly supports the formation mechanism of multihollow particles by the stepwise alkali/acid or the alkali/cooling treatments of carboxylated polymer particles proposed by the authors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) on the muscle tonus of the ampulla and isthmus of the oviduct isolated from nonpregnant proestrus pigs were investigated, and the 5-HT receptor subtype and mechanisms of the responses were analyzed. 5-HT (1 nM–10 μM) caused a relaxation of longitudinal and circular muscles of the isthmus in a concentration-dependent manner. Tetrodotoxin did not change the relaxation, indicating a direct action of 5-HT on smooth muscle cells. The EC50 value in the longitudinal muscle was significantly lower than that in the circular muscle but the maximum relaxations were similar. 5-HT also caused a relaxation of both muscle layers in the ampulla but the maximum relaxation of both muscles was smaller than that of the isthmus. 5-Carboxamidotryptamine (5-CT), 5-methoxytryptamine (5-MeOT) and (±)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) mimicked the relaxation of the isthmic longitudinal muscle by 5-HT, and the ranking order was 5-CT>5-HT>5-MeOT>8-OH-DPAT. On the other hand, oxymethazoline, 2-methyl-5-hydroxytryptamine (2-methyl-5-HT), α-methyl-5-hydroxytryptamine (α-methyl-5-HT), [endo-N-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo-(3,2,1) oct-3-yl]-2,3-dihydro-3-ethyl-2-oxo-1H-benzimidazol-1-carboxamide (BIMU-1), ergotamine and dihydroergotamine were less effective. The relaxation by 5-HT was not decreased by ketanserin, 2-methoxy-4-amino-5-chlorobenzoic acid 2-(diethylamino)ethyl ester (tropisetron) or [1[2-(methylsulphonyl) amino ethyl]-4-piperidinyl]methyl-1-methyl-1H-indole-3-carboxylate (GR113808) but was antagonized by the following compounds in a competitive manner (with pKb values in parentheses): 2a-[4-(4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridyl)butyl]-2a,3,4,5-tetrahydro-benzo[cd]indol-2(1H)-one (DR4004, 9.31), methiothepin (8.91), methysergide (7.95), metergoline (7.98), mianserin (7.69), mesulergine (8.4), spiperone (6.86) and clozapine (7.4). The correlation of these pKb values with pKi values of cloned 5-HT7 receptor or pA2 values of porcine uterus was high and significant. 4-(3-Butoxy-4-methoxybenzyl)-imidazolidin-2-one (Ro20-1724) significantly enhanced the relaxation by 5-HT but zaprinast, 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) and L-nitroarginine methylester (L-NAME) did not change the responses to 5-HT. 5-HT increased cyclic AMP in the isthmic oviduct. Ampulla and isthmus contained a single class of [3H]5-CT binding sites with a similar Kd value (0.4 nM), but the density of the receptors in the isthmus was 2.4 times higher than that in the ampulla. A significant correlation was found between the pKi values in the oviduct and those of the cloned 5-HT7 receptors. Isoprenaline, sodium nitroprusside, vasoactive intestinal peptide and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide were less effective in causing the relaxation of the oviduct. In conclusion, the 5-HT receptor, functionally correlated to the 5-HT7 type, mediates the relaxation of the porcine oviduct by 5-HT through an increase in intracellular cyclic AMP. The degrees of 5-HT-induced relaxation in the isthmus and ampulla of the oviduct were different due to the heterogeneous distribution of 5-HT7 receptors. The strongest relaxation through 5-HT7 receptor activation suggests that 5-HT plays an important physiological role in the regulation of porcine oviduct contractility. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The glass transition temperatures ( Tg) of three kinds of poly(methyl methacrylate)-based copolymer emulsions having wide polymer compositions, which were prepared by emulsifier-free emulsion copolymerizations of methyl methacryalate with ethyl acrylate, n-buthyl methacrylate and methacrylic acid, were measured with a power compensation-type highly sensitive differential scanning calorimeter. The Tg values of the copolymers in their emulsion state ( Tg E) were always lower than those in their dry states ( Tg D), and the difference between Tg E and Tg D increased with an increase in copolymer hydrophilicities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]