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Organ-specific expression of a Cre recombinase allows the analysis of gene function in a particular tissue or cell type. Using a 6.1 kb promoter from the mouse tyrosinase gene, we have generated and characterized two lines of transgenic mice that express Cre recombinase in melanoblasts. Utilizing a Cre -responsive reporter mouse strain, genetic recombination was detected in the melanoblasts of the skin from embryonic day 11.5. In addition, Cre-expression was detected in the skin and eyes of mice. Cre transgene activity was occasionally detected in the brain and peripheral nerves but not in other tissues. When Tyr::Cre mice were crossed with mice carrying a homozygous loxP conditional mutation for the insulin-like growth factor receptor gene (Igf1r ); Cre-melanoblast-specific recombination pattern was confirmed, and no abnormal phenotype was observed. In conclusion, Tyr::Cre transgenic mice provide a valuable tool to follow the cell lineage and to examine gene function in melanocyte development and transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Catenins are proteins which mediate the interaction between cadherins and the cytoskeleton. In addition to their role in cell-cell adhesion, catenins also participate in the Wnt-pathway signalling pathways which regulate cell growth and differentiation. One of these catenins, β -catenin, is involved in melanocyte development and transformation: β -catenin is expressed at all stages of the melanocytic development. β -catenin is found mutated in melanoma cells, and the mutations always concern serine residues found in the N-terminal part of the protein. The status of phosphorylation of these serine residues dictates the stability of the protein. The stabilization of β -catenin, either as a result of Wnt signaling or as a consequence of the mutations found in melanomas, induces a translocation of β -catenin to the nucleus. In the nucleus, β -catenin acts as a transcription factor once it is complexed with members of the Lef/Tcf family of transcription factors. In the melanocyte lineage, it was shown that Mitf expression is regulated by the β -catenin/Lef complex. In order to elucidate in vivo the function of β -catenin during the melanocyte development and in melanoma formation, transgenic mice expressing mutated forms of β -catenin in the melanocytic lineage were produced. An overall downpigmentation and unpigmented belly spots observed in transgenic mice which are due to impaired proliferation and migration inhibitions of melanoblasts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We aim to evaluate environmental and genetic effects on the expansion/proliferation of committed single cells during embryonic development, using melanoblasts as a paradigm to model this phenomenon. Melanoblasts are a specific type of cell that display extensive cellular proliferation during development. However, the events controlling melanoblast expansion are still poorly understood due to insufficient knowledge concerning their number and distribution in the various skin compartments. We show that melanoblast expansion is tightly controlled both spatially and temporally, with little variation between embryos. We established a mathematical model reflecting the main cellular mechanisms involved in melanoblast expansion, including proliferation and migration from the dermis to epidermis. In association with biological information, the model allows the calculation of doubling times for melanoblasts, revealing that dermal and epidermal melanoblasts have short but different doubling times. Moreover, the number of trunk founder melanoblasts at E8.5 was estimated to be 16, a population impossible to count by classical biological approaches. We also assessed the importance of the genetic background by studying gain- and loss-of-function β-catenin mutants in the melanocyte lineage. We found that any alteration of β-catenin activity, whether positive or negative, reduced both dermal and epidermal melanoblast proliferation. Finally, we determined that the pool of dermal melanoblasts remains constant in wild-type and mutant embryos during development, implying that specific control mechanisms associated with cell division ensure half of the cells at each cell division to migrate from the dermis to the epidermis. Modeling melanoblast expansion revealed novel links between cell division, cell localization within the embryo and appropriate feedback control through β-catenin.

Tumor progression is a multistep process in which proproliferation mutations must be accompanied by suppression of senescence. In melanoma, proproliferative signals are provided by activating mutations in NRAS and BRAF, whereas senescence is bypassed by inactivation of the p16(Ink4a) gene. Melanomas also frequently exhibit constitutive activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway that is presumed to induce proliferation, as it does in carcinomas. We show here that, contrary to expectations, stabilized beta-catenin reduces the number of melanoblasts in vivo and immortalizes primary skin melanocytes by silencing the p16(Ink4a) promoter. Significantly, in a novel mouse model for melanoma, stabilized beta-catenin bypasses the requirement for p16(Ink4a) mutations and, together with an activated N-Ras oncogene, leads to melanoma with high penetrance and short latency. The results reveal that synergy between the Wnt and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathways may represent an important mechanism underpinning the genesis of melanoma, a highly aggressive and increasingly common disease.

Constitutive activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway is a notable feature of a large minority of cases of malignant melanoma, an aggressive and increasingly common cancer. The identification of target genes downstream from this pathway is therefore crucial to our understanding of the disease. The POU domain transcription factor Brn-2 has been implicated in control of proliferation and melanoma survival, and its expression is strongly upregulated in melanoma. We show here that in vivo Brn-2 is expressed in melanocytes but not in embryonic day 11.5 melanoblasts and that its expression is directly controlled by the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway in melanoma cell lines and in transgenic mice. Moreover, silent interfering RNA-mediated inhibition of Brn-2 expression in melanoma cells overexpressing beta-catenin results in significantly decreased proliferation. These results, together with the observation that BRAF signaling also induces Brn-2 expression, reveal that Brn-2 is a focus for the convergence of two key melanoma-associated signaling pathways that are linked to cell proliferation.

Nonclassical major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I human leukocyte antigen E (HLA-E) and HLA-G molecules differ from classical ones by specific patterns of transcription, protein expression, and immunotolerant functions. The HLA-G molecule can be expressed as four membrane-bound (HLA-G1 to -G4) and three soluble (HLA-G5 to -G7) proteins upon alternative splicing of its primary transcript. In this study, we describe a new set of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) called MEM-G/01, -G/04, -G/09, -G/13, MEM-E/02, and -E/06 recognizing HLA-G or HLA-E. The pattern of reactivity of these mAbs were analyzed on transfected cells by flow cytometry, Western blotting, and immunochemistry. MEM-G/09 and -G/13 mAbs react exclusively with native HLA-G1 molecules, as the 87G mAb. MEM-G/01 recognizes (similar to the 4H84 mAb) the denatured HLA-G heavy chain of all isoforms, whereas MEM-G/04 recognizes selectively denatured HLA-G1, -G2, and -G5 isoforms. MEM-E/02 and -E/06 mAbs bind the denatured and cell surface HLA-E molecules, respectively. These mAbs were then used to analyze the expression of HLA-G and HLA-E on freshly isolated cytotrophoblast cells, on the JEG-3 placental tumor cell line, and on cryopreserved and paraffin-embedded serial sections of trophoblast tissue. These new mAbs represent valuable tools to study the expression of HLA-G and HLA-E molecules in cells and tissues under normal and pathologic conditions.

Human cytomegalovirus has evolved multiple strategies to interfere with immune recognition by the host. A variety of mechanisms affect antigen presentation by major histocompatibility complex class I molecules resulting in a reduced class I cell-surface expression. This downregulation is expected to trigger natural killer (NK) cytotoxicity, requiring counteraction by the virus to establish long-term infection. Here we describe that the human cytomegalovirus gpUS6 protein, which has been demonstrated to downregulate the expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and the presentation of cytotoxic T lymphocyte epitopes by blocking transporter associated with antigen presentation (TAP function), does not affect the ability of HLA-E to inhibit NK cell mediated lysis of K-562 cells by interaction with CD94/NKG2A expressed on NK cells. Cell surface expression and function of HLA-E is not altered although gpUS6 inhibits TAP-dependent peptide transport by 95%. Moreover, HLA-E molecules presenting HLA class I signal sequence-derived peptides are functionally detectable on transfected TAP-deficient RMA-S cells.

Cadherins constitute a superfamily of cell adhesion molecules involved in cell-cell interaction, histogenesis and cellular transformation. They have been implicated in the development of various lineages, including derivatives of the neural crest. Neural crest cells (NCC) emerge from the dorsal part of the neural tube after an epithelio-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migrate through the embryo. After homing and differentiation, NCC give rise to many cell types, such as neurons, Schwann cells and melanocytes. During these steps, the pattern of expression of the various cadherins studied is very dynamic. Cadherins also display plasticity of expression during the transformation of neural crest cell derivatives. Here, we review the pattern of expression and the role of the main cadherins involved in the development and transformation of neural crest cell derivatives., (Copyright 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

It is now acknowledged that the pattern of HLA-G expression is not restricted to extravillous cytotrophoblast cells, as several studies described HLA-G in HLA class I+ cells, such as thymic epithelial cells, cytokine-activated monocytes and some tumors. In these situations, HLA-G may provide an additional inhibitory signal to escape from NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to define the behavior of HLA-G once it is co-expressed into an HLA-A, -B, -C and -E+ cell line. For this purpose, HLA-G1 cDNA was transfected into an HLA class I+ melanoma cell line which was used as a target towards freshly isolated peripheral blood NK cells. Cytotoxic experiments using either anti-HLA-G1 or anti-HLA-G1 inhibitory receptor mAb show that HLA-G1 boosts the HLA class I-mediated inhibition of polyclonal NK cells through interaction with ILT-2, which appears as the major HLA-G1 inhibitory receptor involved. Nevertheless, HLA-G1 is also able to inhibit the cytolytic activity of an ILT-2- NK clone which otherwise expresses another HLA-G1 inhibitory receptor belonging to the KIR103 gene family. In order to more precisely define the relative role exerted by HLA-G1 versus -E on polyclonal NK cells, antibody-blocking assays were carried out using either anti-HLA class I or anti-CD94/NKG2A. Results demonstrate that in the absence of HLA-G1, the naturally expressed HLA class I-mediated NK inhibition is predominantly exerted by HLA-E through binding with CD94/NKG2A. In contrast, once HLA-G1 is expressed, it becomes the major NK inhibitory ligand.

Human CMV has evolved multiple strategies to interfere with immune recognition of the host. A variety of mechanisms target Ag presentation by MHC class I molecules resulting in a reduced class I cell-surface expression. This down-regulation of class I molecules is expected to trigger NK cytotoxicity, which would have to be counteracted by the virus to establish long-term infection. Here we describe that the human CMV open reading frame UL40 encodes a canonical ligand for HLA-E, identical with the HLA-Cw03 signal sequence-derived peptide. Expression of UL40 in HLA-E-positive target cells conferred resistance to NK cell lysis via the CD94/NKG2A receptor. Generation of the UL40-derived HLA-E ligand was also observed in TAP-deficient cells. The presence of a functional TAP-independent HLA-E ligand in the UL40 signal sequence implicates this viral gene as an important negative regulator of NK activity.

An HLA-E-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) was obtained by immunization of human beta2-microglobulin transgenic mice (M-TGM) with spleen cells from double transgenic mice expressing HLA-E molecules (EM-TGM). This mAb, designated V16, specifically recognizes in flow cytometry analysis the HLA-E expressing mouse cells, whereas it does not bind to mouse cells expressing various HLA class I molecules (HLA-A2, -A3, -A11, -A26, A29, -B7, -B27, -Cw3, -Cw7, and HLA-G). V16 mAb binds efficiently to human EBV-infected B lymphocytes, PHA blasts and PBL, thus establishing the surface expression of HLA-E in vivo on these cells.

The human nonclassical MHC class I molecule HLA-E has recently been shown to act as a major ligand for NK cell inhibitory receptors. Using HLA-E-expressing transgenic mice, we produced a cytotoxic T cell clone that specifically recognizes the HLA-E molecule. We report here that this T cell clone lyses HLA-E-transfected RMA-S target cells sensitized with synthetic class I signal sequence nonamers. Moreover, this T cell clone lyses human EBV-infected B lymphocytes, PHA blasts, and PBL, formally demonstrating the surface expression of HLA-E/class I signal-derived peptide complex on human cells. Furthermore, these data show that HLA-E complexed with class I signal sequence-derived peptides is not only a ligand for NK cell inhibitory receptors, but can also trigger cytotoxic T cells (CTL).

We have introduced the gene (E*01033) encoding the heavy chain of the human nonclassical MHC class I Ag, HLA-E, into the mouse genome. Two founder mice carry a 21-kb fragment, the others bear an 8-kb fragment. Each of the founder mice was mated to mice of an already established C57BL/10 transgenic line expressing human beta2-microglobulin (beta2m). Cell surface HLA-E was detected on lymph node cells by flow cytometry only in the presence of endogenous human beta2m. However, HLA-E-reactive mouse CTL (H-2-unrestricted) lysed efficiently the target cells originating from HLA-E transgenic mice without human beta2m, showing that the HLA-E protein can be transported to the cell surface in the absence of human beta2m, presumably by association with murine beta2m. Rejection of skin grafts from HLA-E transgenic mice demonstrates that HLA-E behaves as a transplantation Ag in mice. HLA-E transgenic spleen cells are effective in stimulating an allogeneic CTL response in normal and human classical class I (HLA-B27) transgenic mice. Furthermore, results from split-well analysis indicate that the majority of the primary in vivo-induced CTL recognizes HLA-E as an intact molecule (H-2-unrestricted recognition) and not as an HLA-E-derived peptide presented by a mouse MHC molecule, although a small fraction (ranging from 4 to 21%) of the primary in vivo-induced CTL is able to recognize HLA-E in an H-2-restricted manner. Based on these observations, we conclude that HLA-E exhibits alloantigenic properties that are indistinguishable from classical HLA class I molecules when expressed in transgenic mice.

The formation of a trimeric complex composed of MHC class I heavy chain, beta2-microglobulin (beta2m) and peptide ligand is a prerequisite for its efficient transport to the cell surface. We have previously demonstrated impaired intracellular transport of the human class Ib molecule HLA-E in mouse myeloma X63 cells cotransfected with the genes for HLA-E and human beta2m (hbeta2m), which is most likely attributable to inefficient intracellular peptide loading of the HLA-E molecule. Here we demonstrate that cell surface expression of HLA-E in mouse cells strictly depends on the coexpression of hbeta2m and that soluble empty complexes of HLA-E and hbeta2m display a low degree of thermostability. Both observations imply that low affinity interaction of HLA-E with beta2m accounts to a considerable extent for the observed low degree of peptide uptake in the endoplasmic reticulum. Moreover, we show that the only allelic variation present in the caucasoid population located at amino acid position 107 (Gly or Arg) greatly affects intracellular transport and cell surface expression upon transfection of the respective alleles into mouse cells. No obvious difference was found with regard to the sequence of the peptide ligand.

Recently, a novel gene, LST1, was identified in the tumor necrosis factor region of the HLA complex, 4 kb centromeric of the lymphotoxin beta gene. By analyzing several full-length cDNA clones and the genomic DNA, we identified seven exons and four introns, spanning 2.7 kb. Isolation of mouse LST1 cDNA clones established the open reading frame. LST1 transcription is characterized by four alternative transcription initiation sites and extensive alternative splicing. The derived polypeptides vary with regard to the presence of the hydrophobic N-terminus and in short internal sequences. In addition, alternative splicing results in LST1 mRNAs encoding different carboxy-terminal sequences. LST1 is predominantly transcribed in monocytes, and mRNA levels increase upon stimulation with interferon-gamma, with a concomitant change in the mRNA pattern resulting in an enhanced expression of the short LST1 transcripts. These data suggest that LST1 may have a specific role in monocytes and possibly also in T cells. Moreover, we found that the recently published cDNA 1C7 is encoded just centromeric of LST1., (Copyright 1997 Academic Press.)