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Increasing population has posed insurmountable challenges to agriculture in the provision of future food security, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region where biophysical conditions are not well-suited for agriculture. Iran, as a major agricultural country in the MENA region, has long been in the quest for food self-sufficiency, however, the capability of its land and water resources to realize this goal is largely unknown. Using very high-resolution spatial data sets, we evaluated the capacity of Iran's land for sustainable crop production based on the soil properties, topography, and climate conditions. We classified Iran's land suitability for cropping as (million ha): very good 0.4% (0.6), good 2.2% (3.6), medium 7.9% (12.8), poor 11.4% (18.5), very poor 6.3% (10.2), unsuitable 60.0% (97.4), and excluded areas 11.9% (19.3). In addition to overarching limitations caused by low precipitation, low soil organic carbon, steep slope, and high soil sodium content were the predominant soil and terrain factors limiting the agricultural land suitability in Iran. About 50% of the Iran's existing croplands are located in low-quality lands, representing an unsustainable practice. There is little room for cropland expansion to increase production but redistribution of cropland to more suitable areas may improve sustainability and reduce pressure on water resources, land, and ecosystem in Iran.

This study explores a general framework for quantifying anthropogenic influences on groundwater budget based on normalized human outflow (hout) and inflow (hin). The framework is useful for sustainability assessment of groundwater systems and allows investigating the effects of different human water abstraction scenarios on the overall aquifer regime (e.g., depleted, natural flow-dominated, and human flow-dominated). We apply this approach to selected regions in the USA, Germany and Iran to evaluate the current aquifer regime. We subsequently present two scenarios of changes in human water withdrawals and return flow to the system (individually and combined). Results show that approximately one-third of the selected aquifers in the USA, and half of the selected aquifers in Iran are dominated by human activities, while the selected aquifers in Germany are natural flow-dominated. The scenario analysis results also show that reduced human withdrawals could help with regime change in some aquifers. For instance, in two of the selected USA aquifers, a decrease in anthropogenic influences by ~20% may change the condition of depleted regime to natural flow-dominated regime. We specifically highlight a trending threat to the sustainability of groundwater in northwest Iran and California, and the need for more careful assessment and monitoring practices as well as strict regulations to mitigate the negative impacts of groundwater overexploitation.

Sustainability in operations, production, and consumption continues to gain relevance for engineers. This trend will accelerate as demand for goods and services grows, straining resources and requiring ingenuity to replace boundless supply in meeting the needs of a more crowded, more prosperous world. Industrial engineers are uniquely positioned to incorporate sustainability concepts into this work; their focus is on systems, and in observing these systems at a high level, they can most effectively choose which parts of the systems to modify to produce desired results. In this paper, we explore using the vehicle of education to introduce sustainability concepts into industrial engineers' training. We first survey the current state of sustainability education in industrial engineering programs. We then discuss a curricular modification program in which sustainability was introduced into several courses through use of content-focused modules. We conclude with our recommendations on how such a structure can be used to expand sustainability education in industrial engineering programs at all levels.

The interaction between climate and groundwater forms a complex, coupled system that affects land‐atmosphere feedback processes and thus local climatic parameters. We propose an analytical framework that integrates local groundwater information and soil hydrophysical characteristics to identify regions with bidirectional (two‐way) coupling where groundwater is influenced by climatic factors (e.g., precipitation) and may affect local climate (e.g., through surface fluxes). The framework capitalizes on the concept of the evaporation characteristic length to quantify the hydraulic connection of groundwater to the soil surface. To evaluate the framework, we calculate the maximum depth of hydraulic connection (Dmax) between groundwater and the soil surface in Hamburg, Germany. For regions with Dmax exceeding the groundwater depth (d), a bidirectional mode of coupling is defined, while Dmax < d implies a unidirectional coupling mode. Our results indicate that climate driven evaporation changes potentially alter the coupling between groundwater and climate depending on soil texture. Moreover, soil hydraulic properties and shallow groundwater tables could play a crucial role in shifting land‐atmosphere feedback processes by influencing the coupling mode. This research provides insights into the groundwater‐climate interactions under various climatic conditions and soil textures which could contribute to sustainable land‐use management practices, particularly in regions characterized by bidirectional coupling. Plain Language Summary: This study explores the hydraulic connection between climate and groundwater. We developed an analytical framework that combines local groundwater levels and soil hydrophysical characteristics to identify areas with potential two‐way climate‐groundwater interaction. In areas with bidirectional mode of coupling not only the groundwater is influenced by the climate (e.g., through precipitation), but also it may affect climatic parameters by influencing soil moisture and evapotranspiration. We employed the framework to calculate the maximum depth of hydraulic connection (Dmax) linking groundwater and climate in Hamburg, Germany. Results identify bidirectional coupling zones, where climate and groundwater can mutually influence each other. We found that changes in soil properties, evaporation dynamics, and groundwater levels affect the climate‐groundwater coupling thus shedding light on the impact of (shallow) groundwaters on land‐athmosphere feedback processes. Key Points: A physically based framework was proposed to quantify effects of soil hydraulic properties on groundwater and climate interactionsSaturated hydraulic conductivity and groundwater levels are crucial for assessing the coupling modes in the study area (Hamburg, Germany)Combined effects of climatic parameters, soil properties and shallow groundwater influence the mode of coupling in Hamburg, Germany [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small agricultural reservoirs support water demands during dry spells. However, evaporative losses that are often overlooked in water accounting and management diminish the storage efficiency of these popular but un‐inventoried resources. We developed a predictive framework to identify the spatio‐temporal extent of small reservoirs (900–100,000 m2) and quantify their evaporative losses using a physically‐based model. Focusing on water‐stressed regions of Europe (Italy, Spain, and Portugal), our results indicate that the total number and cumulative area of small reservoirs in drier areas of Europe almost doubled in two decades from about 6,200 reservoirs with the cumulative area of 46 km2 in 2,000 to 11,800 reservoirs with the cumulative area of 93.5 km2 in 2020. We observed climate‐driven trends in the expansion of agricultural reservoirs and their evaporative losses which exceeded 72 million cubic meters during warm months (April to September) accounting for 38% of their total storage capacity. Plain Language Summary: Small agricultural reservoirs play a key role in supporting irrigation and local demands in a warming climate. However, evaporation diminishes their storage efficiency. We provide a physically‐based framework for estimating global abundance and evaporative losses from small reservoirs serving as a basis for improving water management and planning. To show the applicability of the proposed method, we focused on water‐stressed regions of Europe (Italy, Spain, and Portugal). We found that cumulative area of small reservoirs in the study area has reached to 93.5 km2 in 2020 with cumulative evaporative losses that may exceed 72 million cubic meters. The study offers new insights into the improved understanding of the role and efficiency of small water storage infrastructure in water planning strategies. Key Points: A physically‐based framework was proposed to identify the extent of small reservoirs (<0.1 km2) and quantify their evaporative lossesTotal number and cumulative area of small agricultural reservoirs in water‐stressed regions of southern Europe doubled in two decadesStrong correlations were found between expansion of agricultural reservoirs, air temperature and precipitation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on introducing and comparing various types of external regulatory institutions for management of common pool resources (CPRs), namely the quota-based management, resource status-based management, tax-based management, and bankruptcy management institutions. The performance of these regulatory institutions in a heterogeneous set of physical conditions is demonstrated using a stylized numerical groundwater exploitation example. Results suggest that the benefits to different types of users as well as the sustainability of the CPR vary by the regulator's choice of management institution. More specifically, quota-based management and CPR status-based management institutions can lead to increased benefits to CPR beneficiaries, prolong the CPR's life, and prevent "tragedy of the commons." In contrast, tax-based management institutions may fail to secure sustainable use of the CPRs. Bankruptcy-based management institutions may also be used toward sustainable use of the CPRs and to increase the benefits to the users; however, their overall effectiveness is not as desirable as the quota-based and resource status-based management institutions, especially when enforcing social justice is an issue of concern for the regulator. © 2013 Elsevier B.V.

While only about 30 percent of California’s usable water storage capacity lies at higher elevations, high‐elevation hydropower units generate, on average, 74 percent of California’s in‐ state hydroelectricity. In general, high‐elevation plants have small man‐made reservoirs and rely mainly on snowpack. Their low built‐in storage capacity is a concern with regard to climate warming. Snowmelt is expected to shift to earlier in the year, and the system may not be able to store sufficient water for release in high‐demand periods. Previous studies have explored the climate warming effects on California’s high‐elevation hydropower system by focusing on the supply side (exploring the effects of hydrological changes on generation and revenues) but they have ignored the warming effects on hydropower demand and pricing. This study extends the previous work by simultaneous consideration of climate change effects on high‐elevation hydropower supply and demand in California. Artificial Neural Network models were developed as long‐term price estimation tools, to investigate the impact of climate warming on energy prices. California’s Energy‐Based Hydropower Optimization Model (EBHOM) was then applied, to estimate the adaptability of California’s high‐elevation hydropower system to climate warming, considering the warming effects on hydropower supply and demand. The model was run for dry and wet warming scenarios, representing a range of hydrological changes under climate change. The model’s results relative to energy generation, energy spills, reservoir energy storage, and average shadow prices of energy generation and storage capacity expansion are examined and discussed. The modeling results are compared with previous studies to emphasize the need to consider climate change effects on hydroelectricity demand and pricing when exploring the effects of climate change on California’s hydropower system.

Water exports from California’s Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta are an environmental concern because they reduce net outflows of fresh water from the Delta, and can entrain fish and disrupt flows within the Delta. If exports were no longer pumped from within the Delta, the regulatory issue becomes one of maintaining appropriate flows into and out of the Delta. This paper presents the results of two sets of hydro-economic optimization modeling runs, which were developed to represent a range of modified Delta operations and their economic and operational effects on California’s water supply system. The first set of runs represents decreasing export capacity from the Delta. The second set increases minimum net Delta outflow (MNDO) requirements. The hydro-economic model seeks the least–cost statewide water management scheme for water supply, including a wide range of resources and water management options. Results show that reducing exports or increasing MNDO requirements increase annual average statewide water scarcity, scarcity costs, and operating costs (from greater use of desalination, wastewater recycling, water treatment, and pumping). Effects of reduced exports are especially concentrated in agricultural communities in the southern Central Valley because of their loss of access to overall water supply exports and their ability to transfer remaining water to southern California. Increased outflow requirements increase water scarcity and associated costs throughout California. For an equivalent amount of average Delta outflows, statewide costs increase more rapidly when exports alone are reduced than when minimum outflow requirements are increased and effects are more widely distributed statewide.

California’s hydropower system is composed of high and low elevation power plants. There are more than 150 high-elevation power plants, at elevations above 1,000 feet (300 m). Most have modest reservoir storage capacities, but supply roughly 74% of California’s in-state hydropower. The expected shift of runoff peak from spring to winter due to climate warming, resulting in snowpack reduction and increased snowmelt, might have important effects on power generation and revenues in California. The large storage capacities at low-elevation power plants provide flexibility to operations of these units under climate warming. However, with climate warming, the adaptability of the high-elevation hydropower system is in question as this system was designed to take advantage of snowpack, a natural reservoir. With so many high-elevation hydropower plants in California, estimation of climate warming effects by conventional simulation or optimization methods would be tedious and expensive. An Energy-Based Hydropower Optimization Model (EBHOM) was developed to facilitate practical climate change and other low-resolution system-wide hydropower studies, based on the historical generation data of 137 high-elevation hydropower plants for which the data were complete for 14 years. Employing recent historical hourly energy prices, the model was used to explore energy generation in California for three climate warming scenarios (dry warming, wet warming, and warming-only) over 14 years, representing a range of hydrologic conditions. The system is sensitive to the quantity and timing of inflows. While dry warming and warming-only climate changes reduce average hydropower revenues, wet warming could increase revenue. Re-operation of available storage and generation capacities help compensate for snowpack losses to some extent. Storage capacity expansion and to a lesser extent generation capacity expansion both increase revenues, although such expansions might not be cost-effective.

This paper explores water management adaptation in California to warm-dry and warm-only climate warming scenarios from the updated scenarios for the California Climate Change Scenarios Assessment 2008. CALVIN, an optimization model of California’s intertied water supply system, is employed to explore adaptation strategies for year 2050. EBHOM, an optimization model of high-elevation hydropower systems in California, is used to estimate adaptation in energy generation. A historical (1921–1993) hydrology is used as a reference. The warm-dry scenario is developed using permutation ratios for a 30-year downscaled simulation (from the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory’s CM2.1 model using the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios A2 scenario) centered at 2085. The warm-only scenario was developed based on the warm-dry hydrology, preserving the early snowmelt from the warm-dry scenario while maintaining the mean annual flows of the historical hydrology. This will aid separation of precipitation and temperature effects for adaptation to climate change. Agricultural and urban water uses for the year 2050 are obtained from two ancillary models. Results predict significant adaptation to warm-dry and warm-only climates. Water scarcity occurs from the drier climate in the warm-dry scenario, with increasing competition among water uses. Early snowmelt and peak storage characterize warmer climate scenarios in California. Warm-only scenario scarcity costs are significantly less than for the warm-dry scenario.

Based on a multi‐attribute assessment of the environmental impacts and challenges associated with global Bitcoin (BTC) mining activities around the globe, we call for urgent action by the scientific, policy, and advocacy communities. The worldwide BTC mining network consumed 173.42 TWh of electricity during the 2020–2021 period, bigger than the electricity consumption of most nations. The mining process emitted over 85.89 Mt of CO2eq in the same timeframe, equivalent to the emission caused by burning 84 billion pounds of coal or running 190 natural gas‐fired power plants. The environmental footprint of BTC mining is not limited to greenhouse gas emissions. In 2020–2021, the global water footprint of BTC mining was about 1.65 km3, more than the domestic water use of 300 million people in rural Sub‐Saharan Africa. The land footprint of the global BTC mining network during this period was more than 1,870 square kilometers, 1.4 times the area of Los Angeles. These striking numbers highlight the heavy reliance of the BTC network on fossil fuels and natural resource‐intensive energy sources, resulting in major but unmonitored and unregulated environmental footprints. To mitigate the environmental costs of BTC mining, immediate policy interventions, technological advancements, and scientific research are crucial. Proposed measures include enhanced transparency, economic and regulatory tools, developing energy‐efficient alternative coins, and the adoption of greener blockchain validation protocols. Plain Language Summary: The cryptocurrency sector is increasingly integrated into the global financial system. The world's transition to a digital economy, facilitated by major technological breakthroughs, has several benefits. But as the demand for exchanging and investing in digital currencies is rapidly growing, the world must pay careful attention to the hidden and overlooked environmental impacts of this growth. The dramatic increase in the price of Bitcoin (BTC) over the last few years and the resulting global race for BTC mining is turning the cryptocurrency market into one of the world's leading polluting sectors. Yet, our knowledge about the environmental footprints of mining BTC is very limited. Here, we provide the first estimates of the carbon, water, and land footprints of BTC mining around the world to argue why urgent intervention and action to monitor, control, and mitigate the environmental impacts of the cryptocurrency market is necessary. Key Points: Cryptocurrency mining has major but overlooked carbon, water, and land footprintsChina, USA, Kazakhstan, Russia, Canada, Malaysia, Germany, Ireland, Iran, Thailand, Sweden, Norway, Singapore, and the UK are among the top contributors to the environmental footprints of the global Bitcoin mining networkUrgent regulatory intervention and technological breakthroughs are needed to mitigate the environmental impacts of the digital currency sector which is rapidly growing [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]