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This study aims to explore the middle schoolers' common naive conceptions of AI and the evolution of these conceptions during an AI summer camp. Data were collected from 14 middle school students (12 boys and 2 girls) from video observations and learning artifacts. The findings revealed 6 naive conceptions about AI concepts: (1) AI was the same as automation and robotics; (2) AI was a cure-all solution; (3) AI was created to be smart; (4) All data can be used by AI; and (5) AI had nothing to do with ethical considerations. The evolution of students' conceptions of AI was captured throughout the summer camp. This study will contribute to clarifying what naive conceptions of AI were common in young students and investigating design considerations for the AI curriculum in K-12 settings to address them effectively.

To help novice learners overcome the obstacles of learning computational thinking (CT) through programming, it is vital to identify difficult CT components. This study aimed to determine the computational concepts and practices that learners may have difficulties acquiring and discuss how programming instructions should be designed to facilitate learning CT in online learning environments. Participants included 92 undergraduate students enrolled in an online course. Data were collected from a CT knowledge test and coding journals. Results revealed that four computational concepts (i.e., parallelism, conditionals, data, and operators) and two computational practices (i.e., testing and debugging and abstracting and modularizing) were identified as CT components that were difficult to learn. The findings of this study imply that CT instructions should offer additional instructional supports to enhance the mastery of difficult computational concepts and practices. Further research is necessary to investigate instructional approaches to successful CT learning.

Online collaborative argumentations need instructional support to ensure social interactions and in-depth cognitive engagement. It is known that graphic organizers assist in comprehending information and negotiating meanings for individual and collective tasks. This study intends to compare the effects of different graphic organizers in asynchronous online discussions. Specifically, it investigates three graphic organizers collaboratively constructed by learners, including t-charts, tree charts, and maps. A t-chart is a table that shows two sides of a subject (e.g., pros vs. cons). A tree chart gets a subject to branch out into multiple subtopics, displaying a hierarchy of topics. A map depicts relations of a topic with nodes and links. This study examines the three graphic organizers' impacts on social, cognitive, and affective engagements in online collaborative argumentation. A quasi-experimental study was conducted in an online graduate course where 36 students participated in case-based discussions with a graphic organizer for each group. The results demonstrated that more alternative ideas were generated in t-charts than the other types, which shows varying levels of knowledge construction. In terms of participatory and attitudinal aspects, we did not find a significant difference across the types of graphic organizers. This study suggests the form of a graphic organizer affects how learners construct knowledge in collective work. Affordances of each type of graphic organizer and their applications in online instructional settings were discussed.

The primary goals of this research were to investigate the development of computational thinking (CT) skills among elementary students and to identify areas for improvement in their CT practices. Empirical investigations, accomplished in a learner-centered, problem-based learning curriculum for sixth-graders, sought to examine student proficiency in CT practices by analyzing programs developed by students. A total of 30 students participated in this study and eleven Scratch projects were analyzed. Results revealed that students showed high competence in Event, Parallelism, Sequence, and Design while low competence in Loop & Operator. Examination of the flow of their programs revealed how effectively students utilized CT concepts in CT practices. As areas for improvement, researchers identified an extremely fine-grained programming (EFGP) approach and a lack of abstraction.

Although teachers need to assess computational thinking (CT) for computer science education in K-12, it is not easy for them to evaluate students' programs based on the perspective. The purpose of this study was to investigate students' CT skills reflected in their Scratch programs. The context of the study was a middle school coding club where seven students voluntarily participated in a five-week coding activity. A total of eleven Scratch programs were analyzed in two aspects: problem decomposition and program development. Results revealed that students demonstrated proper decompositions of problems, which supported program development processes. However, in some cases, students failed to decompose necessary parts as their projects got sophisticated, which resulted in the failure or errors of programs. Regarding program development, algorythmic thinking had been identified as the area to be improved. Debugging and evaluation of programs were the necessary process students needed to practice. Implications for teaching CT skills were discussed.

Evaluating the quality of students' programs is necessary for better teaching and learning. Although many innovative learning environments for computer science have been introduced, the scarcity of program evaluation frames and tools is a demanding issue in the teaching practice. This study examined the quality of students' Scratch programs by utilizing Dr. Scratch and by analyzing codes based on four computational concepts: conditions, loops, abstractions, and variables. Twenty-three Scratch programs from two classes of pre-service teachers from a university were examined. Dr. Scratch results revealed that Scratch programs demonstrated a middle level of competency in computational thinking. The analysis of computational concepts suggested that students had a sufficient understanding of the main concepts and demonstrated computing competency by applying the concepts into their programs. The study also discussed inefficient programming habits, instructional issues utilizing Scratch, and the importance of problem decomposition skills.

This study investigated how a computer science (CS) problem-based curriculum impacted elementary students' CS learning and attitudes. Four sixth-grade teachers and 200 of their students participated in the study. Researchers developed a CS curriculum in collaboration with the teachers, which consisted of two main units: (1) an introduction to block-based coding and (2) a problem-based learning (PBL) applied coding project. Overall, students significantly improved their knowledge of CT concepts after the introductory block-based coding lessons and retained that knowledge after completing the PBL activities approximately three months later. Results suggest that "Event" and "Parallelism" were challenging concepts for most of the students, whereas "Loop" and "Sequence" were easily grasped by most of the students. Further analysis based on prior knowledge levels revealed that the high-prior knowledge (HK) group outperformed the low-prior knowledge (LK) group on every measure. However, LK narrowed the gap of CT concepts after the introductory block-based coding lessons. Students also communicated relatively positive attitudes towards CS at the conclusion of the PBL unit. These results provide support for further exploring the integration of inquiry-oriented instructional strategies such as PBL to support CS instruction.

As computational thinking (CT) gains more attention in K-16 education, problem-solving has been more emphasized as a core competency that can be found across various domains. To develop an evaluation framework that reveals students' problem-solving competency, this study examined solutions for the Bebras Computing Challenge which requires students to utilize problem-solving skills in a CT domain. A total of 246 solutions of three Bebras tasks were analyzed based on a qualitative content analysis method and four levels of solutions were identified. The solution levels revealed how students (1) failed to understand a problem (No solution), (2) solved the problem but failed to identify the pattern (Premature level), (3) identified principles embedded in the problem but failed to apply them to devise an automized solution (Intermediate level), and (4) identified principles and solved the problem by applying them (Advanced level). This study presented solution levels across Bebras tasks and discussed how task difficulty affected student solutions differently. Implications for teaching problem-solving skills were discussed.

Scaffolding is one of the critical features in a problem-based learning environment to address challenges associated with problem solving. While transfer of responsibility is considered as an ultimate goal in scaffolding that is adaptive and contingent, it is rarely studied and practiced. Thus, the purpose of this study was to inform a deeper understanding of one middle school teacher's manner of soft scaffolding, which refers to just-in-time and contingent support, through teacher-student interaction to examine how transfer of responsibility was achieved. We investigated one middle school teacher's forms of scaffolding during a problem of food systems and supply chains related multiple aspects of sustainability and social justice issues. Using conversation analysis, three discursive patterns in scaffolding emerged: (1) shifting patterns of turn-taking organization; (2) leaving room for the students to take responsibility by giving extended wait time; and (3) extending the discussion with different examples. The paper concludes with implications for PBL teachers and researchers.

Understanding the students' programming misconceptions is critical in that it identifies the reasons why students make errors in programming and allows instructors to design instructions accordingly. This study investigated the mental models of programming concepts held by pre-service teachers who were novice programmers. In an introductory programming course, students were asked to solve problems that could be solved by utilizing conditional statements. They developed solution plans using pseudo code including a simplified natural language, symbols, diagrams, etc. Sixteen solution plans of three different types of problems were analyzed. As a result, the students' egocentric and insufficient programming concepts were identified in terms of the misuse of variables, redundancy of codes, and weak problem-solving strategies. The results revealed that the students had difficulty designing solution plans that computers could execute correctly. They needed instructional supports to master how to express their solution plans so programs run as intended. Problem driven instructional designs for novice programmers were discussed.

The purpose of this paper is to identify the types of students' interaction, as well as their discussion patterns in an online course. The study took place in a large Midwestern University and 17 graduate students participated in the study. The primary data was obtained from students' discussion forum postings. The researchers used both qualitative and quantitative approaches to describe and analyze the types of discussion and interaction. The researchers developed a coding scheme based on theories and models. The findings of the study reveal that computer mediated communication (CMC) has a positive potential to increase interaction among students. Furthermore, the findings confirm the effectiveness of asynchronous online environment in supporting online learning community. Participants were engaged in social interaction to build their knowledge. This study recommends two-way interaction for achieving sustainable discussion and promoting higher level of interaction.

Metacognitive skills can improve with appropriate instruction, however, educators may not be familiar with these methods of teaching. This study explores what factors influenced students to implement metacognitive skills and how students perceived the purposefully designed metacognitive activity in a high school classroom in South Korea. 252 students were involved in the study and a survey and focus group interviews were employed for the data collection. A linear regression analysis revealed that perceived task values predicted the use of metacognitive skills. A thematic analysis of the interviews showed the possibility of transferring the metacognitive skills to new contexts, and the benefits of student-teacher interactions in developing their metacognitive skills. Implications of the results for research and the instructional design of the metacognitive activities are discussed.

Although collaborative learning is becoming a widely popular instructional method, little research has been undertaken considering human cognitive structures and their influence on the design of collaborative learning tasks. Using cognitive load theory as a theoretical framework in this study, forty-five undergraduate students were assigned to either individual or two-person groups to solve simple and complex tasks. Overall, we found that participants took less time, scored better, and invested less cognitive effort while solving simple tasks compared to complex tasks, which indicates complex tasks were more cognitively demanding and difficult to solve. Consistent with cognitive load theory, groups scored higher than individuals while solving complex tasks. Analysis of nine semi-structured interviews on group participants revealed that collaborative interactions play an important role in the problem-solving process and resulted in three main themes that included: (1) perceived benefits, (2) associated challenges, and (3) various strategies used for collaborative problem-solving processes. These findings suggest that collaborative learning can overcome individual working memory limitations through the collective working memory effect, and collaborative interactions are vital in the groups' problem-solving processes. Based on the study findings, we discuss the significance of the study and provide implications for research and practice as well as study limitations.

Group awareness tools (GATs) are used to enhance awareness among students in online collaborative settings. GATs display awareness information of group processes, so students have a shared understanding of the collaboration. They also encourage students to share their opinions regarding their group processes, which externalizes unspoken awareness information and facilitates group regulation activities. The current study observed how students generated awareness information when being guided by a GAT. The primary aim of the study was to investigate the contents of student-generated awareness information collected from the evaluations of group processes and reflections about the collaboration process. A case study, drawing upon both qualitative and quantitative data, was conducted in the study. The results suggested the validity of student-generated awareness information, and its application in evaluating collaborative group processes. Students' reflections also identified successful as well as disadvantageous aspects of group processes in three themes: communication, efficient work processes, and commitment. Overall, the findings suggested that student-generated awareness information can reveal the real status of collaborative group process. Successful and disadvantageous aspects of group processes were discussed from the students' perspectives.

The focus of this research project was to examine how problem- based learning (PBL) impacts students' interest and knowledge in computer science (CS) at the elementary level. By focusing on a problem that emphasizes social activism, we hypothesized that PBL CS could increase interest for students. We employed an iterative design-based research approach to examine how the CS PBL curriculum impacted 6th grade students' understanding of and interest in CS, as well as the supports teachers need to implement the curriculum. Results suggest that students' understanding and interest in CS increased. In addition, the teacher reported needing more content PD support, revisions to curriculum to improve comprehension, and other resources.

How can teachers be inspired to integrate technology properly into their teaching? As technology has been playing a more crucial role in classrooms, it is highly necessary to investigate how teachers perceive the benefit of technology and feel confident to use it. The present study focused on teachers' self-efficacy and belief regarding mobile computing devices. To investigate the relationship among self-efficacy, belief and technology integration, we administrated a survey to teachers (N = 57) in middle schools adopting one-to-one technology initiatives. Results showed that teachers' self-efficacy toward mobile technology predicted the integration of the technology. Teachers' belief had a positive relationship with, but did not predict, technology integration. Factors related to teachers' self-efficacy and belief were discussed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the types of problem-solving behaviors and their effects on solution quality in an online collaborative learning context. A total of 12 preservice teachers enrolled in a computer education course participated in the study. Students in pairs, randomly assigned by the instructor, carried out a problem-solving task and then changed partners for subsequent tasks. The problem-solving processes of 25 pairings of students were analyzed. Data on their problem-solving behaviors, the quality of their solutions, and their domain knowledge were collected. Results revealed that students who demonstrated more solution-oriented behaviors led others to better solutions while collaborating. In contrast, students who had difficulty in understanding problems demonstrated more problem-oriented behaviors. The solution-oriented students also gained better domain knowledge at the end, compared with the problem-oriented ones. The effects of the student's interactions during the problem-solving process were discussed.

The current study examined the effects of different types of instructor comments on student engagement in an online discussion. In particular, this study examined three comment types: (1) praise-oriented comments, agreeing with students' initial messages and recapping their ideas, (2) elaboration-encouraging comments, requesting elaboration on the initial messages, and (3) perspective-widening comments, suggesting different or thought-provoking opinions responding to the initial messages. Seventeen graduate students enrolled in an online course were recruited. A content analysis was employed to evaluate the levels of knowledge construction. Interactivity was measured by the number of posts and idea units. The findings revealed that perspective-widening comments facilitated students' evaluation on the peer postings and brought up diverse perspectives, contributing to knowledge construction. While elaboration-encouraging comments led to high interactivity among students, praise-oriented comments had no significant effect on the frequency of interactivity.

The current experimental study examined the effects of graphic organizers in a collaborative learning context where students constructed knowledge during online discussions. As the results could vary depending on how students interacted with the graphic organizers, this study compared two different approaches: instructor-provided versus student-generated graphic organizers. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of receiving or generating graphic organizers on students' engagement in online discussions. Thirty-six graduate students enrolled in an online graduate course participated in the study. While analyzing an instructional design case, students were asked to discuss design issues in a randomly assigned group. There were three conditions: control condition without graphic organizers, instructor-provided, and student-generated graphic organizers. Major findings revealed that both generating and receiving graphic organizers facilitated students' higher levels of cognitive engagement, and encouraged students to consider alternative views during the discussions. Without the graphic organizer, students tended to simply summarize previous messages or raise new issues rather than elaborating on previous topics. There was a significant finding regarding the ways of interacting graphic organizers. Students discussed more topics when they were given instructor's graphic organizers rather than when they were asked to generate them.

Background: Collaboration and decision making among nursing students are essential competencies in nursing education. However, how students collaborate and make decisions in simulation is a complex phenomenon and not well understood. This study aimed to develop a framework that describes peer collaborative clinical decision making (PCCDM) among nursing students in simulation. Method: Charmaz's constructivist grounded theory method was used. The sample included 32 participants (16 dyads) from two nursing programs. Results: The PCCDM framework described three interrelated functional domains (cognition, behavior, and emotion) experienced through three interrelated processes (awareness, communication, and regulation), alternating between individual and collaborative spaces and changing across time according to the simulation's acuity levels. Conclusion: The PCCDM framework provides a model that reflects how these processes unfold over time in simulations, which can be applied in nursing simulation, classroom, and clinical settings that require students to make collaborative decisions. [J Nurs Educ. 2024;63(7):435–443.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collaboration skills have become a critical competency for health care providers. This study aims to understand how individual student characteristics and group process in the early phase of group development are associated with students' perception of their overall collaborative learning experience. The study was conducted in two consecutive semesters with a total of 86 health sciences undergraduate students participating. The results show that quality communication in the beginning phase of group development and health-care work experiences are two major factors associated with students' perception of overall collaborative learning. The findings confirm the importance of the initial phase of collaboration. Faculty should deliberately design collaborative learning experiences that offer orientation in enhancing the interactions among group members and allow quality communication to proliferate.

This study examined the types of learning behaviors students demonstrated while performing inquiry tasks. It also explored the relationship between the learning behaviors and students' domain knowledge. We observed fourteen students in five groups during a ninth-grade biology course. Three types of learning behaviors (inquiry, collaborative, and minimally productive behaviors) were identified and time on each type was measured. The results suggest that students demonstrated different patterns according to the types of learning behaviors. Correlation analysis revealed that learning outcomes had a strong positive correlation with the inquiry behaviors but a strong negative correlation with the minimally productive behaviors. The results suggest that attention should be paid to facilitate the more meaningful inquiry behaviors while reducing minimally productive behaviors.

This study reviewed evaluations of K-12 AI education from 2013 to 2022. The analysis encompassed 36 articles and focused on examining research methods, sample sizes, evaluation methods and types, learning outcomes, evaluation contexts, and primary findings. The results showed that most evaluations took a summative approach and relied on self-report surveys to evaluate cognitive learning outcomes related to machine learning (ML) concepts among middle and high school students in informal settings. The tools commonly employed for evaluation were AI-based programming tools and online platforms. These findings offer valuable insights for AI educators and researchers in K-12 education, highlighting the significance of introducing students to the assessment of AI in formal learning settings at an early age, utilizing thorough qualitative and mixed-methods techniques, and embracing diverse assessment approaches to evaluate cognitive learning outcomes beyond machine learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An online discussion facilitates students' higher order thinking in online classes, especially when adopted with the instructor's guidance. The current experimental study examined the effects of two different discussion representation tools (social and cognitive diagrams) on students' discussion behaviors. The social diagram emphasized interactivity of participants by illustrating who posted messages and who replied. The cognitive diagram described how discussion topic evolved by summarizing main topics discussed. Thirteen graduate students enrolled in an online graduate course participated in the study. While analyzing five instructional cases, students were asked to discuss each case in a group that the instructor assigned randomly. For each case, one group was provided with the social diagram whereas the other with the cognitive diagram. Major findings revealed both tools facilitated online discussion activities as the instructor intended: the social diagram turned out to promote socially desirable responses while the cognitive diagram produced more cognitively desirable responses. Further studies on how the two types of discussion diagrams can be integrated in online discussions will be needed.

This study examined the effects of self-explanation prompts on problem-solving performance. In total, 47 students were recruited and trained to debug web-program code in an online learning environment. Students in an open self-explanation group were asked to explain the problem cases to themselves, whereas a complete other-explanation group was provided with partial explanations and asked to complete them by choosing correct key-words. The results indicate that students in the open self-explanation condition (a) outperformed in a debugging task, (b) perceived higher confidence for their explanations, and (c) showed a strong positive relationship between the quality of their explanation and their performance. These results demonstrate the benefits of the open self-explanation prompts. Cognitive load of self-explanation and quality of explanation are discussed. (Contains 5 tables and 3 figures.)

In this study, the effects of reflective self-explanations on conceptual understanding and problem solving are investigated in a domain of computer programming. After completing a multiple-choice test, 33 students were asked to reflect on and explain why their answers were correct or incorrect. Groups were divided for post hoc analysis based on the degree of reflective self-explanation and prior knowledge. Results indicated that students who actively engaged in the reflective self-explanation process performed better in problem solving tasks with minimal guidance. Prior knowledge was critical for effective reflection, especially recalling principles. Although low prior knowledge students tended to persist with their faulty mental models, self-explanation activities helped them to repair their models. The relationship between reflective self-explanation and prior knowledge is discussed. (Contains 4 tables and 4 figures.)

The purpose of this study was to examine how team process factors relate to students' self-efficacy, attitude, and learning satisfaction in flipped learning. Since lone-wolf students tend to have little patience for the group work process and exhibit a lack of organizational commitment, this study also explores how students' preferences for collaborative work or individual work affect their self-efficacy, attitude, and learning satisfaction in a flipped classroom. The participants were thirty-four undergraduate students enrolled in a consumer behavior course offered by a school of business at a university in Seoul, South Korea. Data were collected through surveys that measured team process, lone-wolf tendencies, self-efficacy, and attitude during the course. The results show the factor of team trust had a significant negative correlation with the lone-wolf measure but a positive correlation with responsibility, communication, cognitive and social competency, and self-efficacy. Moreover, communication and responsibility were positive predictors of self-efficacy and attitude. These results imply the usefulness of identifying critical variables of individual difference, such as lone-wolf tendencies, that could lead to both dysfunctional team process and low outcomes. Based on the results, this study provides implications for structuring and managing team projects in a higher education setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examined the effects of different types of instructor comments on student engagement in an online discussion. In particular, this study examined three comment types: (1) praise-oriented comments, agreeing with students' initial messages and recapping their ideas, (2) elaboration-encouraging comments, requesting elaboration on the initial messages, and (3) perspective-widening comments, suggesting different or thought-provoking opinions responding to the initial messages. Seventeen graduate students enrolled in an online course were recruited. A content analysis was employed to evaluate the levels of knowledge construction. Interactivity was measured by the number of posts and idea units. The findings revealed that perspective-widening comments facilitated students' evaluation on the peer postings and brought up diverse perspectives, contributing to knowledge construction. While elaboration-encouraging comments led to high interactivity among students, praise-oriented comments had no significant effect on the frequency of interactivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the types of problem-solving behaviors and their effects on solution quality in an online collaborative learning context. A total of 12 preservice teachers enrolled in a computer education course participated in the study. Students in pairs, randomly assigned by the instructor, carried out a problem-solving task and then changed partners for subsequent tasks. The problem-solving processes of 25 pairings of students were analyzed. Data on their problem-solving behaviors, the quality of their solutions, and their domain knowledge were collected. Results revealed that students who demonstrated more solution-oriented behaviors led others to better solutions while collaborating. In contrast, students who had difficulty in understanding problems demonstrated more problem-oriented behaviors. The solution-oriented students also gained better domain knowledge at the end, compared with the problem-oriented ones. The effects of the student's interactions during the problem-solving process were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the types of learning behaviors students demonstrated while performing inquiry tasks. It also explored the relationship between the learning behaviors and students’ domain knowledge. We observed fourteen students in five groups during a ninth-grade biology course. Three types of learning behaviors (inquiry, collaborative, and minimally productive behaviors) were identified and time on each type was measured. The results suggest that students demonstrated different patterns according to the types of learning behaviors. Correlation analysis revealed that learning outcomes had a strong positive correlation with the inquiry behaviors but a strong negative correlation with the minimally productive behaviors. The results suggest that attention should be paid to facilitate the more meaningful inquiry behaviors while reducing minimally productive behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collaboration skills have become a critical competency for health care providers. This study aims to understand how individual student characteristics and group process in the early phase of group development are associated with students’ perception of their overall collaborative learning experience. The study was conducted in two consecutive semesters with a total of 86 health sciences undergraduate students participating. The results show that quality communication in the beginning phase of group development and health-care work experiences are two major factors associated with students’ perception of overall collaborative learning. The findings confirm the importance of the initial phase of collaboration. Faculty should deliberately design collaborative learning experiences that offer orientation in enhancing the interactions among group members and allow quality communication to proliferate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]