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The thalamic nuclei develop before a viable preterm age. GABAergic neuronal migration is especially active in the third trimester. Thalamic axons meet cortical axons during subplate activation and create the definitive cortical plate in the second and third trimesters. Default higher‐order cortical driver connections to the thalamus are then replaced by the maturing sensory networks, in a process that is driven by first‐order thalamic neurons. Surface electroencephalographic activity, generated first in the subplate and later in the cortical plate, gradually show oscillations based on the interaction of the cortex with thalamus, which is controlled by the thalamic reticular nucleus. In viable newborn infants, in addition to sensorimotor networks, the thalamus already contributes to visual, auditory, and pain processing, and to arousal and sleep. Isolated thalamic lesions may present as clinical seizures. In addition to asphyxia and stroke, infection and network injury are also common. Cranial ultrasound can be used to classify neonatal thalamic injuries based on functional parcelling of the mature thalamus. We provide ample illustration and a detailed description of the impact of neonatal focal thalamic injury on neurological development, and discuss the potential for neuroprotection based on thalamocortical plasticity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cranial ultrasound reliably diagnoses many neonatal brain disorders. Adding Doppler imaging expands the spectrum by providing information on the status of the vasculature and haemodynamics that may guide further diagnostic and clinical management. Doppler imaging may identify neonates with congenital or acquired vascular abnormalities such as perinatal stroke, sinuvenous thrombosis, vein of Galen malformation, dural sinus malformation, sinus pericranii, and developmental venous anomaly. These entities may need further investigation with complementary imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance angiography, or conventional angiography. This review aims to help clinicians to improve their Doppler sonography knowledge and skills in order to use this helpful tool in neonates with neurological symptoms or suspected cerebral vascular abnormalities admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neonatal ventriculomegaly often, but not always, follows intraventricular haemorrhage in infants born preterm. Serial cranial ultrasonography (CUS) is a very useful tool to evaluate the mechanism behind ventricular dilatation, to differentiate several types of cerebrospinal fluid retention, and to guide treatment. This review examines neonatal ventriculomegaly and its definition, pathophysiology, treatment, and prognosis from the perspective of CUS assessment. It also outlines the consensus statements formulated by the EurUS.Brain group, which are based on rounds of expert opinions on neonatal ventriculomegaly management, detailing the need and timing of ventricular access device placement, in the context of posthaemorrhagic ventricular dilation. The pathophysiology of neonatal ventriculomegaly is more complex than previously considered. CUS is a valuable, non‐invasive tool to determine pathophysiology, intervention thresholds, and prognosis in neonates with ventriculomegaly. Given new insights into the existence of glymphatics and water circulation in the cerebrum, further research in that area may bring new treatment options. What this paper adds: Cranial ultrasonography has a significant role in better understanding the complex pathophysiology of neonatal ventriculomegaly.The latest research suggests that treating posthaemorrhagic ventricular dilation in its early stages has several advantages.Proper definition, management, and a follow‐up plan are essential because they can impact the infant and their family, health care providers, educational systems, and society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of 'new-generation' pulse oximeters in extremely low-birth-weight ([ELBW] <=1000 g) infants. In a prospective crossover observational study, the performance of pulse oximeters of 3 brands (Masimo, Nellcor, and Philips) was evaluated by dual SpO2 measurement in ELBW infants. Disposable probes of either equal or different brands were placed around both feet of the patient simultaneously for approximately 4 hours. Probes were switched between feet every hour. Absolute differences in SpO2 values ([Delta]SpO2) and the bias between brands were studied. Nine ELWB infants were included (gestational age: mean ± SD = 26/7 ± 1/7 weeks). The median (range) [Delta]SpO2 was 2% (0%-26%). In 9% of the time, [Delta]SpO2 was 5% or more. The variance of the difference of the 3 pulse oximeter brands was not significantly different. No consequent bias between brands was found. Simultaneously obtained pulse oximeter measurements from the feet of ELBW infants differ from each other. Our results suggest that it is not the brand but the handling of the pulse oximeter in clinical practice, such as the place and positioning of the probe, that influences the performance of the pulse oximeter the most. Improvement in the accuracy of oxygen-monitoring techniques for ELBW infants is required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In preterm infants, the germinal matrix is a common origin of hemorrhages during the first 7 days of life. Sonographically, germinal matrix hemorrhages present as subventricular echodensities evolving into pseudocysts. Similar lesions have been reported as incidental findings also beyond 7 days of life. They may result from vasculitis and ischemic infarction, rather than hemorrhage. To assess the occurrence, time course, and significance for neurodevelopment of such late germinal matrix hemorrhage-like lesions, we reviewed serial cerebral ultrasound examinations obtained in 86 sequentially admitted infants (gestational age <32 weeks or birth weight <1500 g). Neurodevelopment was assessed at 3 years (Bayley Scales of Infant Development). Nine infants had late isolated germinal matrix hemorrhage-like lesions. Their Psychomotor Development Index scores were significantly lower than that in infants without hemorrhage. Our results suggest that late isolated germinal matrix hemorrhage-like lesions are of clinical significance because of their notable incidence and association with neurodevelopmental outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neonates admitted to the intensive care unit are at risk of brain injury. Importantly, infants with signs of neurological impairment need prompt diagnosis to guide intervention. Cranial ultrasound (CUS) is the first‐line imaging tool for infants born preterm. New developments in this technology, which now incorporates high‐resolution equipment, have notably improved the performance of CUS in infants born at term and near‐term. On the other hand, the potential of CUS as a diagnostic tool in older infants is less established. The lack of studies focusing on this topic, local protocol variability among clinical sites, and divergent opinions on CUS patterns of disease entities are the main constraints. This review provides an overview of state‐of‐the‐art CUS as a decision‐making tool under different clinical scenarios, such as neonatal encephalopathy, seizures, and suspected central nervous system infection. The CUS features that characterize several patterns supporting a diagnosis are detailed, focusing on haemorrhage and infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Postnatal insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) replacement with recombinant human (rh)IGF-1 and IGF binding protein-3 (rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3) is being studied as a potential treatment to reduce comorbidities of prematurity. We have recently reported on a phase II, multicenter, randomized, controlled trial comparing postnatal rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3 replacement with standard of care (SOC) in extremely preterm infants (NCT01096784). Maximum severity of retinopathy of prematurity was the primary endpoint of the trial and presence of GMH-IVH/PHI one of the pre-specified secondary endpoints. Infants therefore received serial cranial ultrasound scans (CUS) between birth and term age. In this post-hoc analysis we present a detailed analysis of the CUS data of this trial and evaluate the effect of postnatal rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3 replacement on the incidence of different kinds of brain injury in extremely preterm infants. Methods: This report is an exploratory post-hoc analysis of a phase II trial in which infants <28 weeks gestational age were randomly allocated to rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3 or SOC. Serial cranial ultrasounds were performed between birth and term-equivalent age. Presence of germinal matrix hemorrhage and intraventricular hemorrhage (GMH-IVH), periventricular hemorrhagic infarction (PHI), post-hemorrhagic ventricular dilatation, and white matter injury (WMI) were scored by two independent masked readers. Results: The analysis included 117 infants; 58 received rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3 and 59 received SOC. A trend toward less grade II-III GMH-IVH and PHI was observed in treated infants vs. SOC. A subanalysis of infants without evidence of GMH-IVH at study entry ( n = 104) showed reduced progression to GMH-IVH in treated infants (25.0% [13/52] vs. 40.4% [21/52]; not significant). No effects of rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3 on WMI were observed. Conclusion: The potential protective effect of rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3 on the occurrence of GMH-IVH/PHI appeared most pronounced in infants with no evidence of GMH-IVH at treatment start., (Copyright © 2020 Horsch, Parodi, Hallberg, Malova, Björkman-Burtscher, Hansen-Pupp, Marlow, Beardsall, Dunger, van Weissenbruch, Smith, Hamdani, Mangili, Barton, Ramenghi, Hellström, Ley and the ROPP-2008-01 Study Team.)