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This article examines the concept of a ‘terror of history’ in the work of historian of religion Mircea Eliade, particularly in his 1948 book The Myth of the Eternal Return: Cosmos and History. The article turns to Eliade’s journals to trace the genesis of this concept, showing that this book which became a foundational text in the history of religions was originally conceived as a work on the philosophy of history. Tracing the incoherences and contradictions of this ‘terror’ in the context of his wartime diary entries, the continuity of Eliade’s thought from his time as an outspoken supporter of the Romanian Iron Guard in the 1930s to his publication of Cosmos and History in 1948 becomes clear. Eliade’s ‘terror,’ it is shown, is conditioned by his despair at the retreat and collapse of the European fascist powers, but is more fundamentally an expression of horror toward the dissolution and loss of identity that he associates with historicity and, indeed, with difference itself. As this article shows, Eliade’s solution was not an ‘eternal return’ but rather an eternal escape from history, a religious oblivion that would collapse all events into ‘archetypes’ and blot out the horror of history and difference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lands between and around the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers were home to the ancient Mesopotamian civilization from the time when writing became meaningful (early 3rd millennium BC) until the Persian King Cyrus put an end to the Babylonian Empire in 539 BC. The fact that this civilization had a deep-rooted and rich tradition of religious beliefs and practices is evident from the cult objects and temple ruins unearthed during archaeological excavations, as well as the nearly half a million cuneiform clay tablets. The religious beliefs and practices observed in this geography during the period in question generally consist of the beliefs and practices identified in Babylonian, Assyrian, Akkadian, and Sumerian societies. These beliefs and practices, which were first seen in the Sumerians in the historical process and originated in Sumer, were later shaped with the contribution and influence of the Akkadians, who dominated the region and were of Semitic origin. Although the Akkadians had some influence on the Sumerians, it can be said that the Sumerians were more influential and decisive in this area. The Assyrians and Babylonians, who emerged on the stage of history after the Akkadians and Sumerians, stand out as the strongest representatives of these religious beliefs and practices. Different approaches draw attention on whether the religious beliefs and practices of the geography in question, which is the subject of this research, can be expressed as a religion or not, and on naming and classifying them. There are those who believe that these beliefs and practices do not have the identity and character of a religion, as well as researchers who call them in different ways. In the texts, it is possible to see names and classifications such as Sumerian Religion, Akkadian Religion, Assyrian Religion and Babylonian Religion as well as Mesopotamian Religion or Mesopotamian Religions. By addressing these different approaches, the goal here is both to propose a common naming, definition, and classification system and to avoid confusion of concepts. It is understood that the religious beliefs and practices identified in different regions and periods of this geography show a remarkable similarity and do not differentiate enough to form a different religious tradition within itself. For this reason, it is thought that the most appropriate definition for these beliefs and practices is the umbrella concept of "Mesopotamian Religion". In Mesopotamian Religion, it is possible to see unusual individual classifications in the form of "Folk Religion" and "Upper Class Religion". In this religion, which has immanent and transcendent sacred elements, it is known that the immanent sacred understanding is dominant. In connection with the immanent sacred understanding, there is no belief in a single God. In ancient Mesopotamia, the beliefs of polytheism and henotheism are clearly and widely prominent. This religion, in which belief in life after death, texts based on the gods and sacred figures conveying the message of the gods, bears many characteristics and archetypes of today's religions. This subject, which is generally researched by Assyriologists in the West and ancient historians in our country, basically falls within the discipline of History of Religions. In our country, it is seen that there is not enough research that deals with the religious beliefs and practices of Mesopotamia in the context and methods of the discipline of History of Religions. This discipline, which generally focuses on Judaism and Christianity in our country, has the potential to make a serious contribution to the subject of Mesopotamian Religion with its unique and effective methods and approaches. Therefore, this research is expected to add richness and depth to the field and fill an important gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study critiques study of African religions as a singular phenomenon under the umbrella term "African Traditional Religion" and rejects this reductionist approach, suggesting that a more detailed approach that recognises the diversity and plurality of religions on the African continent would allow for more insightful results in the study of religion in Africa. Along with Islam and Christianity, many religions indigenous to African peoples are still practised in Africa. Information about African religions was first provided in the works written mostly by Westerners. The works written by Christian missionaries, anthropologists, soldiers and researchers on religious life in Africa, both before and after the colonial period, have been the trendsetters of the "religion in Africa" literature. In such studies, Africa was analysed as a totality and the term " African Traditional Religion" was created. Besides, these studies were mostly biased, they often looked at religious phenomena from the perspective of Christianity and tried to Christianise them, and even more importantly, they made generalisations and presented all religions as a single religion. Later works by Africans were mostly written by Africans who converted to Christianity. This has led to the continuation of the reductionist and generalising approach in the relevant literature. Studies conducted from this perspective have typically situated African religions within frameworks that emphasize concepts such as the Supreme Being, spirits, ancestor veneration, magic, and sorcery. By highlighting these shared phenomena and oral traditions, this reductionist and orientalist perspective has contributed to the perception of African religions as a singular, cohesive entity. Even today, this effect can be seen in many works. Just as it is an erroneous approach to consider the peoples of Africa as a single race or nation, it is equally problematic to consider the religions of Africa as a single religion. This approach, which places the understanding that there is a single religion in the whole continent based on some similarities observed among the religions in Africa, has prevented the understanding of religious diversity in Africa and African religions. Although it may seem like a practical and problem-free approach, it is obvious that this perspective hinders the understanding of African religions and hence the understanding of Africa. The articles and books analysed in the context of this study have been instrumental in identifying a number of problems associated with this perspective. Many researchers have used the singular term 'Traditional African Religion' and failed to acknowledge the differences between religions. Others have used the term “African Traditional Religion” in the singular, but have stated that religions in Africa should be considered in the plural. Some other researchers have sometimes used a singular and sometimes a plural expression and stated that these can change according to the context, and that both expressions are correct. A small number of researchers also acknowledged that the appropriate term is “religions in Africa” or “African Traditional Religions” in the plural form, in accordance with the points raised in this study. Therefore, this study argues that the individual characteristics of African religions should not be generalised and represented as a single phenomenon, but that a more accurate understanding of these still living religions, with particular emphasis on their differences, will contribute to the understanding of Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the earliest tensions in Jewish history arose between the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah. These regions, known as Samaria and Judea, became areas where two distinct and conflicting traditions emerged. These traditions, each claiming to be the true guardians of the law of Musa and the faithful implementers of God’s commands, have exhibited distinct characteristics in various aspects, including sacred texts, belief principles, the nature of the prophet and the Messiah, and the practice of rituals. One of the most significant differences between these two traditions lies in their understanding of holy places. Jews assert that al-Quds was designated by God, and that the construction of the Temple there was carried out in accordance with divine command. In contrast, the Samaritans contend that the Law of Musa does not reference the sanctity of al-Quds; instead, they argue that all narratives concerning the Jewish ancestors, beginning with Ibrahim, contain clear references to Mount Gerizim. They vehemently oppose the traditions that emerged in the Judean region, as well as the dominant interpretations of al-Quds and the Temple. This perspective of the Samaritans is also evident in their negative portrayals of significant prophets and kings, such as Samuel, Dawud, and Suleyman, who played crucial roles in the development of the Jewish tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the concepts of "heresy," defined as alternative views that challenge or deviate from the core beliefs and teachings of a religious community, and "heretic," which refers to individuals associated with such views. The historical transformations in the meanings and uses of these concepts are analyzed, focusing particularly on the factors that led to the designation of groups and individuals as heretics from the early centuries of Christianity onward. In this context, the doctrinal disputes of early Christian history (I-IV centuries) and the Catholic Church's approach to defining heresy during the Reformation period from the 16th century are critically assessed. Furthermore, the Protestant movement's practice of labeling other religious groups as heretical in the post-Reformation era has further complicated efforts to establish a precise definition and scope for the term "heretic." The aim of this study is to examine the change in the concept of heretics in Christianity from a Catholic-centred perspective and to discuss the effects of this change in Europe. In the first centuries, heresy included criticisms against the Christian faith determined by the councils, while in the following years, as the Church gained power, any criticism against the Church was equated with heresy. Since the 16th century was the age of reform, the Church declared the reformists heretics this time. Heresy has come to cover all political, social and religious contradictions. However, in this study, not only the Catholic Church's understanding of heresy, but also the perception of heresy after the Reformation will be discussed and the roots of Islamophobia and antisemitism will be analysed. Since the way to understand world history and contemporary issues is to establish the cause and effect connection in the processes mentioned, it has been tried to approach these issues as comprehensively as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The academic concepts used in the field of religious studies have been defined in the West through a rational and positivist perspective influenced by the Enlightenment. This definition is a Christo-centric or Euro-centric perspective with colonialist features. The basic doctrines, worship, rituals, and worldviews of the world's religious traditions, even the naming of these religions, are based on this Euro- centric classification. The concept of "monotheism", which is widely used in religious studies, is also a product of this kind of classification. Monotheism, as a term, means "one-god" and refers to the numerical oneness of God. However, it cannot be claimed that this definition applies universally to all religions that are considered monotheistic. For example, it cannot be said that the concept of tawhid in the Islamic tradition is the exact equivalent of the Western concept of "monotheism". Indeed, while monotheism refers to the numerical oneness of God, tawhid emphasizes the exclusive authority of God's decrees. With this feature, the concept of tawhid expresses more than the unity of God numerically, and as the opposite of the concept of shirk, it expresses his sole authority in the life of human beings. Accordingly, it is not possible to explain the Islamic concept of tawhid from a positivist perspective, which claims that polytheism gradually evolved into monotheism. In conclusion, contrary to the evolutionary positivist paradigm, the conceptual definitions of a religious tradition's beliefs should be understood based on the doctrines specific to that religion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archeology and the history of religions are now closer than ever. This closeness has become a necessity with the rich and complex symbolic finds, monumental sacred structures, death practices, standardized ritual arrangements, and installations of the society unearthed in Göbeklitepe and other Neolithic Age settlements around it in our country. It has been understood through many archaeological findings that the main motivation source that initiated settled life in the Neolithic Age, which started approximately twelve thousand years ago, was the social environment, psycho-cultural phenomena, symbolic and cognitive transformations, and religious ideologies. The existence of systematic religious beliefs was also detected in this period. Although these discoveries have begun to bring the fields of archeology and history of religions closer together, it cannot be said that the relationship and mutual data flow have reached the desired level. The article aims to emphasize the deep relationship between the fields of archeology and history of religions and to talk about some of the basic problems that prevent the establishment of this closeness on both fronts. The study also aims to draw attention to the fact that the religious elements among the archaeological evidence should be examined directly from the perspective of religious sciences as well as disciplines such as sociology and anthropology. Archaeologists need to learn the basic principles of the branch of biology and some specific information to examine some finds such as plant or animal remains unearthed during excavations. On the other hand, the fact that we need to penetrate the wide world of "history of religions" to define and interpret religious beliefs is among the arguments of this research. It is also clear that religious sciences must follow the data of branches of science such as archeology and anthropology, which study humans with their material, cultural, and physical remains. The study hopes to create a starting point with a theoretical and critical approach for other scientific studies that will set out for these purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marguerite Porete (d. 1310) is recognized for her book Le Miroir Des Âmes Simples (The Mirror of Simple Souls) and as a mystic woman who was subjected to the Church's inquisition. She was investigated both for her advocacy of divine love and the annihilation of the soul, in her book written in French, and for challenging church authority. She was burned at the stake in Paris in 1310, so she became the first female mystic to be sentenced to death by the Church. What were the dynamics behind Porete's execution? Was her execution as a heretic a reflection of the tension between the Church and mystics, or was it simply an intimidation against women? The study seeks to answer these questions within the framework of the relations between the Church and mystics. It is criticized reductionist approaches that argue that Porete was executed simply because of her views or simply because she was a woman. It is attempted to reveal the factors behind her execution. Also discussed are phenomena prominent in Christian mysticism, such as the union with God and the annihilation of the self. The study aims to shed light on the historical process and dynamics of the relations between the Christian mystical tradition and the Church. In the study, a historical and comparative method is preferred for the Church and mystics, especially for the life of Porete while mystical concepts are discussed with a phenomenological method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Jewish immigration journey to America began in 1654 when a Jewish community of 23 people arrived in New Amsterdam (New York) in North America and continued in the following years. This immigration adventure is mainly divided into three periods. The naming of these periods was influenced by the ethnic origins of the Jews who immigrated to America from Europe. These periods are the Sephardic Period, which covers the period between 1654-1820, the German Period, which refers to the period between 1820-1880, and finally, the Eastern European Period, which characterizes the period between 1881-1924. The Sephardic Period, which covers the years between 1654 and 1820, is divided into the Colonial Period (1654-1776) and the Early National Period (1776-1820). The Colonial Period is further classified as the Dutch Period (1654-1664) and the British Period (1664-1776). The difficult situation of the Jews living in Germany and later in Tsarist Russia, the laws enacted against them, their being forced to live under oppression and persecution, and great economic hardship forced Jews to migrate to America, known as the New World. In each wave of immigration, Jews faced great difficulties. Being uneducated and penniless, having to leave their families behind, not speaking English, and even their Jewish identity are the main reasons for their difficulties. Despite all this, American Jews have gained new rights and freedoms in the context of economy, education, politics, and culture. In this environment of freedom, they have achieved unimaginable success in almost every field. Jews who started as peddlers in America became rich enough to open stores and even establish banks. The children of uneducated Jews proved themselves as doctors, lawyers, and teachers. While achieving these successes, they had to overcome great hardships occasionally. As a result of all this, America has become the second homeland of the Jews after Israel, with a Jewish population of nearly seven million. On the other hand, this study, which aims to outline the immigration history of American Jews who play an active role in world politics and economy, is important in contributing to the understanding of American Jews themselves and their power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the reflections surrounding the centenary of the History of Religions in Italy. Topics include the pivotal role of Angelo Brelich in shaping the discipline, the revolutionary approach to religion as a historical phenomenon, and the dynamic interactions between Brelich and other prominent scholars like de Martino.

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Copyright of Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni is the property of Editrice Morcelliana S.p.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni is the property of Editrice Morcelliana S.p.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni is the property of Editrice Morcelliana S.p.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni is the property of Editrice Morcelliana S.p.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni is the property of Editrice Morcelliana S.p.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni is the property of Editrice Morcelliana S.p.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni is the property of Editrice Morcelliana S.p.A. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article focuses on Raffaele Pettazzoni's contribution to the history of religions, with a critical reflection on the discipline 100 years after the establishment of the first chair in the field at the University of Sapienza. Topics include the legacy of Pettazzoni's work, the interdisciplinary development of religious studies, and the evolution of comparative methodologies within the discipline.

The author reflects on the centenary of the "Cattedra di Storia delle Religioni" at the University of Rome and the critical reflection surrounding its establishment. Topics include the activities organized for the anniversary, the role of the Consulta Universitaria di Storia delle Religioni in Italian academic settings, and the evolving structure and objectives of the field, including its institutional recognition and representation.

Copyright of Mutefekkir, Faculty of Islamic Sciences is the property of Aksaray University, Faculty of Islamic Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Kalemname is the property of Kalemname and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Kalemname is the property of Kalemname and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Polemical texts are among the most productive sources for the discipline of the History of Religions. In addition to providing the researcher with various information about the period in which they were written, works of this genre can provide the researcher with details about the beliefs of the parties involved, their perspectives on each other, how they define themselves and where they position themselves, which cannot be found elsewhere. The twelfth century was an important turning point for Judeo-Christian refutations, which constitute an important branch of this genre. This century saw an extraordinary increase in the number of polemical texts written in Europe, as well as a change in content and method. The subject of this article is the work titled “Against the Inveterate Obduracy of the Jews” by the Benedictine abbot Peter of Cluny (aka Peter the Venerable), who led the Cluny monasteries centered in France between 1122-1156 and was considered one of the most important figures of the Western Church in his time. The period in which the work was written, the author’s style and sources, and the plagiarism allegations against him will be discussed; its similarities and differences with classical polemical texts will be revealed by considering its content, and thus the place of the work in anti-Jewish Christian polemical texts will be tried to be determined.

Miracles play an important role in the formation of the religious and national identity of the Jews. However, under the influence of philosophical movements that were influential in the Middle Ages, Jewish scholars debated the possibility of supernatural events described throughout the Torah. Maimonides, one of the leading Jewish community leaders of this period and whose influence on Jewish theology is indisputable, also made an explanation on this issue in many of his works. On the one hand, he describes miracles as one of the foundations of religion, and on the other hand, he interprets some of the miracles of the Torah outside of Jewish tradition. Based on this, the issue of which idea Maimonides actually defended is debated by many researchers. Maimonides’ understanding of miracles, which has not been studied independently in Turkish literature, constitutes the subject of this article. First, the issue of whether Maimonides believed in miracles, and then the nature of the miracles he presents in his works and the purpose for which they occur are discussed. The sections in the works of Maimonides that deal with the issue of miracles constitute the main sources of this study. The article aims to clarify the issue by examining Maimonides’ views on miracles as a whole.

Maimonides (d. 1204) explained the thirteen faith principles of Judaism in his Commentary on Perek Helek. He presented these principles as mandatory criteria for attaining salvation and having a Jewish identity. Over time, the thirteen principles were accepted as the foundations of traditional Judaism. On the other hand, Maimonides reiterated the thirteen principles with the same content in another book called Sefer ha-Mada. However, Sefer ha-Mada was accused by Jewish scholars of having philosophical content contrary to traditional Judaism and was banned. Therefore, although Maimonides constructed the principles of faith with the same content in both works, one was accepted as the foundations of traditional Judaism, while the other was accused of being alien to traditional Judaism. This article attempts to show that the philosophical content that led to the prohibition of Sefer ha-Mada is also found in the thirteen principles in the Commentary on Perek Helek. It also explores why the thirteen principles have been embraced by the Jewish community despite their philosophical content.

The first of the problems that arose among the early Christian believers in Jesus centered around the relationship of the Mosaic Law to gentile believers. The main problem was whether the Jewish Law was binding on the gentile peoples after their acceptance of Jesus Christ. In the New Testament, especially in the Acts of the Apostles and Paul's letters, we can see that the debate over the Law was not resolved in the early period, as we can see in the writings of later church fathers. This article will focus on how the Law is interpreted through the correspondence between Jerome and Augustine, two famous church fathers who lived in the fourth century, and an incident between Peter and Paul in Paul's Letter to the Galatians. This correspondence between these two church fathers will be discussed through their explanations of the binding force of the Jewish Law on the gentile people. While Jerome will argue that the alleged scene between Paul and Peter in the Epistle to the Galatians is a fiction that was organized within a plan, Augustine will argue that Jerome's interpretation would mean that an event that does not exist in reality is recorded in the New Testament, which would undermine the authority of the sacred texts.

A historical assessment of the Samaritan Pentateuch is important both for understanding the processes of change and transformation that sacred texts has been through and for exploring how communities with different religious interpretations, though originating from the same region, shape their identities. Various theories exist regarding the origins of this Torah, which is considered sacred by the Samaritan community. Research on the Abisha Scroll, regarded by the Samaritans as one of the oldest and most revered manuscripts, provides insights into the methods this community has employed to preserve and transmit its sacred texts across generations. In this study, claims concerning the origin of the Samaritan Pentateuch are evaluated historically within the context of scholarly research conducted after the discovery of the Abisha Scroll and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Accordingly, the writing process, historical development, and preservation methods of this text will be examined in comparison with Jewish sacred text traditions such as the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint, and the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Dead Sea Scrolls make a significant contribution to research on the origins of the Samaritan Pentateuch. In our study, while examining the similarities of the Samaritan Pentateuch with the Septuagint and the Dead Sea Scrolls, we will reevaluate claims that it is derived from the Masoretic Text.

In Judaism, the family plays a fundamental role in the spiritual development of the individual and the preservation of social identity. The family is the structure where religious teachings and cultural values are shaped and passed on to future generations. Judaism considers the teaching of religious and moral responsibilities by parents to their children as an indispensable duty for social continuity. The family, which has a central relationship with God, has been regarded as the strongest protector of identity and faith even during the diaspora periods. This reinforces the individual’s sense of identity and belonging, while also becoming a site of cultural resistance for the Jewish community. This theme, frequently encountered in Jewish tradition, is also present in the Book of Tobit. The Book of Tobit, significant for the continuity of culture and tradition for the diaspora Jews of the time, is a narrative that emphasizes the role of the family. With divine guidance, tradition, Judaism, death-rites, homeland, journey, exile, family, society, culture, belief, charity, goodness, and prayer at the forefront, the book is important for the continuity of Jewish identity. This study aims to examine the work within its historical and cultural context based on its literary language and content and to explain the concept of family in the Book of Tobit.

The impact of socio-political developments on a global scale has led to an increased effectiveness of the counter-theological perspective on religions and cultures in print and broadcast media, especially since the early modern period. Even in regions where there has been no significant historical or religious interaction, the influence and imprint of different religious traditions on a particular religion can be discerned. In this context, theological or religious negative approaches to Islam in Japan can be evaluated within the framework of an influence that emerged in the West with modernity and has its roots in Christian religious traditions. Conversely, an examination of the historical development of Islam in Japan reveals that the country's multicultural and religiously pluralistic structure precludes the possibility of any religious group being perceived negatively on a collective level. However, it is important to acknowledge that the process of Western-style modernisation has occasionally led to negative cultural perceptions of other religions within Western societies. Considering the historical development of Islam in Japan, the country's multicultural and religiously pluralistic structure renders the collective portrayal of any religion as negative implausible. Consequently, the potential for Islamophobia in Japan today and the grounds for the discussions around it continue in this context.

Bu çalışma, Kuzey Avrupa'nın eski halklarından olan Estonların geleneksel inançları ile Türkistan ve Sibirya kökenli Türk halk inançları arasındaki kültürel ve dini benzerlikleri incelemektedir. Estonların haldjas (koruyucu ruh), kurat (şeytan figürü), lumememm (kar adamı) ve kutsal korular anlamına gelen Nemus gibi doğa üstü varlıkları ve ritüelleri daha yakından anlaşılabilmesi için Türk halk inanışlarında yer alan benzer kavramlarla karşılaştırılarak Ural-Altay kültürel mirasına atıf yapılmaktadır. Çalışma, eski Eston toplumlarının ritüel pratikleri, kutsal mekânlar ve semboller gibi temel inanç unsurlarını tanıtırken bunların Altay Türklerinin inanışları ile ortak bir kültürel mirası paylaştıklarına da işaret etmektedir. Bu benzerliklerin tarihsel ve kültürel etkileşimin bir göstergesi olduğu öne sürülmektedir. Makalede ayrıca, Hıristiyanlık öncesi dönemde şekillenen ve nesiller boyunca aktarılan Eston inançlarının doğal çevre ve yer altı ruhlarına olan saygıyı içeren karakteri detaylandırılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, doğayı kutsal kabul eden Eston dünya görüşü ile doğa ruhları ve ata ruhlarına saygı, özellikle "Yeryüzü Dini" olarak bilinen modern Maausk Hareketi ile yeniden canlandırılmıştır. Estonların doğa merkezli dünya görüşü, iki topluluk arasında köprü işlevi gören Türklerin Ural-Altay halkları üzerindeki etkisinin de bir yansıması olabileceği düşünülmekte ve bu benzerliklerin ortaya konmasıyla çalışmanın, Türkoloji, etnoloji ve Dinler Tarihi alanlarına da katkı sunması hedeflenmektedir.

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Copyright of Journal of the Faculty of Divinity of Ankara University / Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi is the property of Ankara Universitesi Ilahiyat Fakultesi Dergisi and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the Arab society of the Prophet's time, the camel was one of the most widely used riding animals. In fact, Arabs preferred the camel as a mount during expeditions and commercial journeys. This important position of the camel led it to be the subject of hadiths. One of these hadiths is the narration of the cursed camel, which is also the subject of the study. The narrations about the Prophet's telling the Companions, who cursed their camels at different times and places, that their camels were cursed by getting them off their mounts are narrated in hadith books. The aim of this study is to analyse the cursed camel narrations in terms of isnad and text and to analyse the problematic aspects of these narrations by examining the adventure of their interpretation in hadith commentaries. In the article, in comparing the hadith texts with each other, perceptible information such as the order of occurrence of the cursing of camels, how many times and where they happened has been tried to be reached. Accordingly, it was determined that the narrations of cursed camels were narrated from 7 different Companions (Jābir b. Abdullah, Abū Hurayrah, Abdullah b. Umar, Anas b. Malik, Hz. 'Aisha, Imrān b. Husayn, Abū Barzah). As a result of the textual analysis of these narrations, it was concluded that there were at least 4 and at most 7 incidents of cursing camels at different times during the Medina period. On the other hand, the study analysed the chapters and subject headings in which the aforementioned hadiths were narrated in the hadith books and made comments on the context in which the hadiths were understood. As a result of the research conducted in this regard, it was seen that Muslim included the hadith in a chapter on morality, Abu Dāwūd in the chapter of 'Jihad', and al-Nasā'i in the chapter of 'Siyar'. Based on these data, it was concluded that Muslim emphasised the cursing in the hadith, while Abu Dāwūd and al-Nasā'i wanted to draw attention to the fact that the incident took place during an expedition. In addition, a part of the article analyses how the curse is interpreted in hadith commentaries. Accordingly, it was observed that the commentaries on the hadith of the cursed camel generally emphasised the curse in the text. In addition, it was concluded that al-Taḥāwī and Ibn Hibbān understood the word curse in its literal sense and thought that the camel was cursed. On the other hand, scholars such as Qāḍī Iyāz, al-Qurtubī and al-Nawawī did not understand the curse in its literal meaning, but preferred the way of interpretation and defended the view that the meaning of the hadīth was to abandon the camel and not to benefit from it. In the last part of the study, the problematic part of the cursed camel hadith was tried to be analysed. In the first instance, it has been determined that the hadith contradicts both religious principles and another hadith. The aspect of the hadith of the cursed camel that contradicts religious principles is how a camel that has no mental capability can be considered as a camel that does not have Allah's mercy. The part of the hadith that seems to contradict religious principles and another hadith was resolved thorough interpreting the word curse to abandon the camel and move away from it instead of the meaning of being expelled from Allah's mercy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Young Intellectuals / Genç Mütefekkirler Dergisi is the property of Journal of Young Intellectuals and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of Eskişehir Osmangazi University Faculty of Theology is the property of Journal of Eskisehir Osmangazi University Faculty of Theology and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

19. yüzyıl, Avrupa’da siyasi, sosyal ve ekonomik açıdan önemli değişikliklerin meydana geldiği bir dönemdir. Bu dönemde, bir taraftan mevcut düzenin değişmesine yönelik devrimci, özgürlükçü ve milliyetçi girişimler gerçekleşirken diğer taraftan dünyayı ve varlıkları anlamada daha önce var olan dinî bakış açısına alternatif olarak seküler bir bakış açısı gelişmiştir. Doğayı ve canlıları, akıl ve bilim yoluyla değerlendiren bu yeni bakış açısı, önce ırk teorilerini, ardından bilimsel ırkçılığı ve nihayetinde antisemitizmi ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu dönemde Avrupa, eski ile yeni karşıtlığına dayalı bir düzen problemiyle karşılaşmıştır. Avrupa’daki yeni gelişmeler karşısında mevcut düzeni koruma taraftarı olanlar, antisemitizmi bir araç olarak kullanmıştır. Bu yaklaşım tarzı bir süre sonra Rusya’ya taşınmıştır. Çok sayıda Yahudi’ye ev sahipliği yapan, siyasi, sosyal ve ekonomik problemler yaşayan Rusya, Avrupalılarla benzer bir yöntem izleyerek antisemitizmi araçsallaştırmış ve bir propaganda metni olan Siyon Liderlerinin Protokolleri’ni üretmiştir. Bu girişim gerçekleştirilirken daha önce Avrupa’da yaygınlaşmış olan Yahudi komplosu literatüründen faydalanılmıştır. Yahudilerin Yahudi olmayanlara düzenlendikleri bir komplo olarak sunulan Siyon Liderlerinin Protokolleri, dünyadaki en önemli ve en popüler antisemit propaganda metnidir. Onun bu önemi ve popülerliği, doğru zamanda ve etkili yöntemlerle sunulmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Toplumsal bunalımların yaşandığı sıralarda korku psikolojisi üzerinden yaygınlaştırılan Protokoller, bu yöntem sayesinde pek çok insan tarafından gerçek bir metin olarak algılanmış ve onların Yahudilere yönelik bakış açısını yönlendirmiştir. Protokoller, Rusya’da monarşi karşıtlarını bastırmak ve Çar rejimini devam ettirmek amacıyla kullanılmıştır. Ancak monarşinin Bolşevikler tarafından yıkılması ve Çarın ailesiyle birlikte öldürülmesi, ABD ve Avrupa’da Bolşevizm korkusu oluşturmuş, bu korku Protokollerin bu bölgelerde yaygınlaşmasına neden olmuştur. Protokoller, ABD ve Avrupa’dan sonra hatalı bir yaklaşımın sonucunda Türkiye’de de ortaya çıkmıştır. Türkiye’nin Yahudilere yönelik yaklaşımı bu ülkelerden farklı olsa da antisemitizmin ve Protokollerin sahip olduğu anlamların kavranamaması, Türkiye’yi de haksız bir şekilde onlarla aynı kategoriye yerleştirmiştir. Türkiye’nin böyle bir kategoriye yerleştirilmesi, onun Yahudilere yönelik hoşgörülü tavrının antisemitizmin gölgesine düşmesine neden olmuştur. Bu çalışmada, Rusya’da Siyon Liderlerinin Protokolleri’ne neden ihtiyaç duyulduğu, nasıl ortaya çıktığı, içeriğinin ne olduğu, nerelerde yaygınlaştığı ve Türkiye’de hangi hataların sonucunda ortaya çıktığı sorularına cevap verilmiştir. Bu sorulara cevap verilirken Protokollerin anlamı, kapsamı ve sonuçlarının Türkiye’nin dışında olduğu, Türkiye’de bu metne ihtiyaç olmadığı ve Yahudilere yönelik eleştirilerde bu metinden kaçınılması gerektiği üzerinde durulmuş, Türk-Yahudi ilişkilerinin antisemitizminden farklı olan boyutuna dikkat çekilmek amaçlanmıştır.

İki bin yılı aşkın Hristiyanlık tarihinin erken dönemlerinden itibaren dindeki önemi, konumu ve rolü giderek artan Meryem, Katolik teolojinin alt branşı “mariyoloji” alanında müstakil olarak ele alınmaktadır. Mariyoliji halk inancında Meryem’e duyulan derin saygı ve sevgiden kaynaklı Meryem kültü ve inancıyla paralel bir gelişme göstermiştir. Yeni Ahit ve ilk dönem Kilise Babalarının yazıları gibi resmi Hristiyan kaynaklarında Meryem’e çok önem atfedilmemiş ve hakkında kısıtlı bilgilere yer verilmiştir. Dördüncü asırda İsa’nın insan ve ilahi tabiatlarının ilişkisi üzerine yapılan tartışmalar ile Meryem, teolojinin konularına dahil edilmeye başlanmıştır. İsa’nın tabiatlarıyla ilgili farklı görüşler ve tartışmalar, Meryem’in anne olarak rolünü ve statüsünü etkilemiştir. İlk dönem Hristiyanlıkta ayrı coğrafyalarda yaşayan muhtelif grupların türemesi, ortak bir kredo oluşturma ihtiyacını ortaya çıkarmıştır. İsa’nın tabiatları konusundaki çelişkili görüşler arasında İsa’nın insan tabiatına vurgu yapmak isteyenler Meryem’in anneliğini delil göstermiştir. Bu tartışmalardan kısa bir süre sonra ilk Meryem dogması “Tanrı Annesi” (431) kabul edilmiştir. Teolojideki bu gelişmelere ek olarak apokrif eserler ve halk inancıyla birlikte Meryem inancı giderek bir külte dönüşmüştür. Bu süreç, Katolik teolojide Meryem’e ait üç inanç esasının daha ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmuştur. Meryem inancındaki bu gelişmeler zamanla Meryem kültünün anlamını derinleştirmiştir. Bu gelişimin izlerini sürmek adına öncelikle Hristiyanlığın erken dönem yazılı kaynaklarına bakılmalıdır. Bu nedenle öncelikle Kutsal Kitap’ın bize tasvir ettiği Meryem ele alınmıştır. Kutsal Kitap dönemi sonrası ve Meryem’e dair ilk dogmanın ilanına götüren üç asırlık dönem içerisinde dini literatürün en önemli kaynaklarından biri olan Kilise Babalarının yazılarında Meryem’e dair yazılanlara yer verilmiştir. Katolik Kilisesinin Meryem hakkındaki söylemlerinin gelişmesinde teolojik tartışmaların yanı sıra apokrif eserler de etkili olmuştur. Resmi kilise öğretisinin dışında kalan bu eserlerde Kutsal Kitabın aksine Meryem’in hayatı doğumundan ölümüne kadar ele alınmıştır. Meryem’le ilgili henüz bir dogma ilan edilmeden önce yaygınlık kazanan bu eserlerin resmi kilise söylemlerine olan tesirini Kilise Babalarının yazılarında, apokriflerden yaptıkları alıntılar ile görmek mümkündür. Bunlardan en yaygın bilineni Yakup İncilidir. Yakup İncili, Meryem’in bakire doğumu ve İsa’nın mucizevi doğumunu detaylı bir şekilde anlatması, Hristiyan topluluklarında Meryem’e olan saygıyı artırmıştır. Bu metin, Meryem’in kutsallığına vurgu yaparak onun değer ve önemini önce halk bazında sonrasında resmi kilise söyleminde arttırmıştır. Benzer şekilde erken dönemde kaleme alınmış ve Meryem’in ölümünü ve göğe yükselmesini ele alan birçok apokrif eser önce halk nezdinde bu inancın benimsenmesini sağlamış ve ardından 1950 yılında resmen kilisenin ilan ettiği bir dogma olmuştur. Bu makalede, Hristiyanlığın Katolik mezhebi içerisinde halk inancının bir yansıması olan Meryem kültü ve Meryem’le ilgili resmi kilise öğretilerinden oluşan mariyolojinin birbirini besleyerek oluşturdukları dinamik etkileşimin, Meryem teolojisine katkısı ele alınacaktır. Bu minvalde erken dönem Kilise Babalarının yazılarına ek olarak bazı apokrif eserlerin Meryem teolojisinin gelişimine olan katkıları ele alınacaktır. Meryem’in ebedi bekaret dogması bağlamında “Yakup İncili” ve Meryem’in göğe yükselmesi dogmasında “Meryem’in Uykusu” ve “Meryem’in Uykusunu anlatan Altı Apokrif” gibi eserlerin doktrin oluşumuna etkileri incelenecektir.

Dispensationalism is a significant theological movement in the United States, especially within Evangelical Christianity. Dispensations refer to the periods that adherents of this belief separate in explaining world history. These periods are generally designated as seven eras in which the relationship between God and humanity was established in varying ways. The idea of dispensationalism was developed by John Nelson Darby. His literal and futuristic interpretation led him to distinguish the roles of Israel and the Church in the Bible prophecies. After Darby, C. I. Scofield played a crucial role in popularizing Darby’s ideas in the United States with the publication of his Scofield Reference Bible. This article examines the historical process of dispensationalism and focuses on its founder, John Nelson Darby, and his views on dispensationalism from a historical perspective. The article concludes that Darby’s dispensationalism is widely accepted by Evangelicals, that the rapture and the separation of the Church and Israel in the God’s divine plan have provided the theological basis for Evangelical Christians’ support for Israel and have had various effects on American popular culture.

This paper questions the authenticity of one of the two main sources cited in scholarly research on the history of the Paulicians in early mediaeval Byzantine Asia Minor, The Key of Truth. It first addresses the issues raised in this source, then analyses the arguments of scholars for and against the authenticity of this text, subjecting the claims of both to a contextual archaeological reading. Finally, it shows how these scholars argued for the authenticity of this work in light of the political, theological, and philosophical events of their time and highlights an aspect that scholars interested in this topic have often ignored. The debates surrounding this text, which purports to be a source of church history, cannot be explained solely in terms of internal identity and doctrinal disagreements. It is argued here that the authors who consider The Key of Truth to be authentic were directly and naturally associated with nineteenth-century Armenian political ideals and, because of these ties, presented this work to ensure the existence and subsequent legitimacy of the Armenian Protestant Church, whose workers were Anglo-American Protestant missionaries and whose patron was the British Empire.

Fundamentalists are a group that arose among American evangelicals in the early 20th century as a reaction to extreme liberalization and especially intense criticism of the Bible. They are called fundamentalists because of the Fundamentals, written at the beginning of the 20th century. A characteristic of fundamentalists who read the Bible literally is their millenarianism. Although they began as an anti-modernist movement, fundamentalists’ extensive use of the media, one of the most important indicators of modernity, gave rise to the previously unknown concept of televangelists. This group has been adept at using radio, then television, and more recently, the Internet. New Testament readings with detailed descriptions, prayer times, and effective sermons are given, especially in programs with an audience. Pat Robertson, a prominent figure among these people, reached large audiences quickly with his satellite network and his continuous broadcasts and became an important name in the field of religious broadcasting in America.

Prior to the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany (Anschluss) in 1938, the Nazi-supporting magazine Kikeriki in Austria targeted the Jews in the country with its antisemitic publications. Revealing Kikeriki’s antisemitic caricatures is crucial for identifying antisemitic propaganda in Austria before the Anschluss. In order to shed light on the antisemitic propaganda in Austria before the Anschluss, the study sought to determine how Jews were presented in Kikereki’s antisemitic visuals and what antisemitic propaganda messages were given against the Jews. For this purpose, Kikereki’s antisemitic caricatures were examined in the context of antisemitic propaganda through Karl Bühler’s Organon Model. The cartoons disseminated propaganda messages that conveyed the exclusion of Jews from Austria, the notion of Jewish dominance over humanity, and the existence of a power struggle between Christians and Jews in the country’s administration. The study concluded that Kikereki aimed to validate the NSDAP’s campaign against the Jews in the Austrian public opinion through its antisemitic propaganda.

The war in Gaza, which started with the attacks of Hamas on October 7, 2023, and continued with the disproportionate use of force by Israel, has reached frightening levels. Although protests took place in many Western cities, mainly with the participation of immigrants, it can be said that the Western public generally remained indifferent to the brutality caused by Israel in Gaza. This article aims to examine and try to understand the attitudes of the Quakers, as a religious group with an exceptional stance, towards the Israel-Palestine War in particular and ‘war-violence’ in general. In accordance with this purpose, the article will first give a general introduction about the Quakers and its founder, George Fox, and then analyze the Quakers’ understanding of “Inner Light” and “Peace Testimony” principles. Finally, the article will try to ground the argument of the exceptionality of the Quakers within Western civilization by focusing on the actual attitudes and activities of the Quakers regarding the war in question for nearly a century.

Copyright of Religious Studies / Dini Araştırmalar is the property of Diyanet Isleri Baskanligi Yayinlari and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Religious Studies / Dini Araştırmalar is the property of Diyanet Isleri Baskanligi Yayinlari and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Raëlism is a controversial new religious movement that originated in France in the 1970s and has since spread around the world. The movement's core tenets are rooted in science, technology, and freedom and can be summarized as a blend of science and spirituality, millenarianism, revelation, story, pseudoscience, and reinterpretation. Raëlians believe in the extraterrestrial origin of humanity and promote the pursuit of higher consciousness, inner peace, individual empowerment, and peace-building. To this end, the movement offers a series of seminars that aim to provide a transformative experience for participants and leads various social initiatives and projects at a global level. Although Raëlism has gained popularity among some individuals, it has also been the subject of substantial criticism and controversy, particularly because of its unconventional views on sexuality and its alleged support for human cloning and genetic engineering. Nonetheless, the movement continues to be a subject of interest and scrutiny for scholars, journalists, and the curious. This article provides an overview of the history, ideology, and practices of the Raëlian Movement and its relationship with transhumanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jews, who have developed relations at different levels with various nations since ancient times, have sometimes been remembered with positive characteristics and sometimes with negative ones, encountering widespread violence, particularly in their relations with Europeans. Jews, who were under the pressure of anti-Judaism arising from religious reasons for centuries, have been under the pressure of anti-Semitism arising from secular reasons since the 19th century. While Jews living in Europe suffered such a fate, Jews living in the Ottoman Empire experienced deep religious and secular tolerance. When the Republic of Turkey was established after the Ottoman Empire withdrew from the historical stage, the Ottoman Empire's tolerance towards Jews continued, but its basis changed. In the 20th century, global governance evolved. Instead of the religious-based nation concept of the age of empires, the modern world adopted a secular nation concept. In the Republic of Turkey, established in line with this new understanding, the perspective towards Jews was shaped accordingly. In this new period, the state evaluated Jews based on their citizenship and loyalty to national values, rather than the religion-based nation system. Peyami Safa, who lived through the final periods of the Ottoman Empire and saw the establishment of the Republic, successfully reflected this transition period and the difference in perspective in his writings about Jews. This feature of Peyami Safa made his thoughts about Jews important and worthy of research. Another reason Peyami Safa's thoughts are significant is that his writings are not confined to the period in which he lived; they are still read with interest today and attract the attention of researchers. Peyami Safa's thoughts about Jews are found in his articles in newspapers and magazines. Writing for over forty years and earning his living from his writings, Safa penned hundreds of articles in many newspapers and magazines. These articles were sometimes written under his own name, sometimes under a pen name, and sometimes anonymously, in line with the changing conditions of the time. This creates difficulty in accessing and classifying Peyami Safa's thoughts about Jews according to their subjects. Another difficulty faced is the evolution of Safa's thoughts according to the conditions of his time. His changing thoughts affected his perspective on Jews, leading to different viewpoints in his writings. This made it challenging to understand his writings about Jews without delving into their context. As a Turkish nationalist who evaluated the 20th century as a century of nationality, Safa discussed Jews in two dimensions: national and international. On a national scale, he criticized Jews in the context of Turkification and speaking Turkish. On an international scale, he criticized Jews in the context of the Second World War and the subsequent Arab-Israeli Wars. The basis of his national criticisms is the experiences gained during the transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic. Having experienced the harmful activities of foreigners and minorities and witnessed the occupation period, Safa drew on these experiences in his criticism of Jews, driven by security concerns. This security concern led him to adopt a critical attitude towards Jews, generally creating a negative image of them in his writings. The basis of his international criticism is his closeness to the Germans and the attitude of the Jews in the Arab-Israeli conflict. In this study, Peyami Safa's thoughts are discussed, and his writings about Jews are examined through newspaper archives. The study is divided into three parts: Peyami Safa's mental background, his worldview and thoughts about Jews, and the Jewish image that appears in his writings. The analysis is presented using a chronological and descriptive method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Uriel da Costa (d. 1640), born into a Marrano family in Portugal in the late 16th century, fled Portugal with his family when he was in his twenties. The most important reason behind this escape was the Inquisition Courts of the period. With the rise of Protestantism, religious oppression in Catholic countries increased and Marranos were also affected. Uriel da Costa, who migrated from his hometown to Amsterdam as a Christian in search of religious freedom and returned to Judaism, was disappointed that he did not encounter a Judaism as he expected. According to Uriel, Judaism is a religion that must be lived in strict accordance with the Bible. However, the Jews of the period, under the guidance of the clergy class, make changes in the Torah's provisions and live their lives in this way. Uriel, who objected to this situation, wrote a small treatise in 1616 and criticized the clergy of the period under the name of "Pharisees" in 11 articles. As a result, he was declared a herem and expelled from the Jewish community. Uriel da Costa, who initially had a reformist understanding of piety, distanced himself from Judaism after being declared a herem. Forced to live apart from the community for many years, Uriel was subjected to various pressures and persecutions by the Jews. Even his family and close friends turned against him for his ideas. In this situation, Uriel reflected on the Mosaic Law and Judaism and finally decided that the Law of Moses, like all other laws, was man-made. During this time, Uriel da Costa published a work in 1624, Exame das tradicoes Phariseas conferidas com a lei escrita (A Study of Pharisaic Tradition in Comparison with the Written Law). In this work, he expanded on the criticisms he had made in 1616 and used a much harsher tone. For Uriel, who had initially emphasized that the Law must be followed strictly and to the letter, it was now the law of nature that mattered. As a result of his struggle with the Jewish clergy and his exclusion from the community, Uriel, while not rejecting the idea of God, turned to deism and adopted the idea that salvation does not depend on the law. Although Uriel da Costa distanced himself from Judaism in his heart and mind, he requested to return to the community due to the deterioration in his living conditions after he was declared a herem. The Jewish Community of Amsterdam accepted this return, but under severe conditions. Uriel da Costa initially refused to accept these terms. But over the next seven years, da Costa's life became more and more difficult. Uriel da Costa realized that the hardships he had endured were not doing him any good, but rather harming him, and he accepted the congregation's terms. He was readmitted to the community in a ceremony held in the synagogue. According to Uriel da Costa, during this ceremony he was first made to read a text of repentance and confession, then he was whipped in the synagogue, and finally he was made to lie on the threshold of the synagogue and the entire congregation was made to pass over him. This ceremony was one of the important turning points in Uriel da Costa's life. Faced with such humiliation, da Costa experienced a psychological and emotional, if not religious, transformation from this point on and began to harbor hatred and hatred against both Judaism and Jews. He wrote an autobiography with feelings of enmity and revenge. In this work, which he called Examplar Humanae Vitae (An Exemplar of Human Life), although he mentions Jews and Judaism, the addressees of the work are Christians. In this work, Uriel showed all his hostility towards Judaism and tried to incite the Christians of the period against the Jews by giving them various messages. Uriel da Costa, who fell into a deep melancholy due to the troubles and problems he had experienced, ended his life with a bullet to his head in 1640. He failed to mobilize Christians against the Jews, which was the primary purpose of his work. But he managed to take revenge on the Jews, albeit indirectly. Uriel, whose ideas and life story continued to be talked about among Amsterdam Jews for many years, contributed to the emergence of an important philosopher such as Baruch Spinoza (d. 1677) on the stage of history. The ideas of Uriel and others like him were systematized and philosophized by important Jewish thinkers such as Spinoza in the following years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]