Search

ImportanceCerebral palsy (CP) is the most common childhood physical disability. Early intervention for children younger than 2 years with or at risk of CP is critical. Now that an evidence-based guideline for early accurate diagnosis of CP exists, there is a need to summarize effective, CP-specific early intervention and conduct new trials that harness plasticity to improve function and increase participation. Our recommendations apply primarily to children at high risk of CP or with a diagnosis of CP, aged 0 to 2 years.ObjectiveTo systematically review the best available evidence about CP-specific early interventions across 9 domains promoting motor function, cognitive skills, communication, eating and drinking, vision, sleep, managing muscle tone, musculoskeletal health, and parental support.Evidence reviewThe literature was systematically searched for the best available evidence for intervention for children aged 0 to 2 years at high risk of or with CP. Databases included CINAHL, Cochrane, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycInfo, and Scopus. Systematic reviews and randomized clinical trials (RCTs) were appraised by A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) or Cochrane Risk of Bias tools. Recommendations were formed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) framework and reported according to the Appraisal of Guidelines, Research, and Evaluation (AGREE) II instrument.FindingsSixteen systematic reviews and 27 RCTs met inclusion criteria. Quality varied. Three best-practice principles were supported for the 9 domains: (1) immediate referral for intervention after a diagnosis of high risk of CP, (2) building parental capacity for attachment, and (3) parental goal-setting at the commencement of intervention. Twenty-eight recommendations (24 for and 4 against) specific to the 9 domains are supported with key evidence: motor function (4 recommendations), cognitive skills (2), communication (7), eating and drinking (2), vision (4), sleep (7), tone (1), musculoskeletal health (2), and parent support (5).Conclusions and relevanceWhen a child meets the criteria of high risk of CP, intervention should start as soon as possible. Parents want an early diagnosis and treatment and support implementation as soon as possible. Early intervention builds on a critical developmental time for plasticity of developing systems. Referrals for intervention across the 9 domains should be specific as per recommendations in this guideline.

Since 2000, targeted reduction in mortality of children younger than 5 years has been the cornerstone of global child health policy. This policy was expanded with the sustainable development goals [...]

ImportanceCerebral palsy describes the most common physical disability in childhood and occurs in 1 in 500 live births. Historically, the diagnosis has been made between age 12 and 24 months but now can be made before 6 months' corrected age.ObjectivesTo systematically review best available evidence for early, accurate diagnosis of cerebral palsy and to summarize best available evidence about cerebral palsy-specific early intervention that should follow early diagnosis to optimize neuroplasticity and function.Evidence reviewThis study systematically searched the literature about early diagnosis of cerebral palsy in MEDLINE (1956-2016), EMBASE (1980-2016), CINAHL (1983-2016), and the Cochrane Library (1988-2016) and by hand searching. Search terms included cerebral palsy, diagnosis, detection, prediction, identification, predictive validity, accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. The study included systematic reviews with or without meta-analyses, criteria of diagnostic accuracy, and evidence-based clinical guidelines. Findings are reported according to the PRISMA statement, and recommendations are reported according to the Appraisal of Guidelines, Research and Evaluation (AGREE) II instrument.FindingsSix systematic reviews and 2 evidence-based clinical guidelines met inclusion criteria. All included articles had high methodological Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS) ratings. In infants, clinical signs and symptoms of cerebral palsy emerge and evolve before age 2 years; therefore, a combination of standardized tools should be used to predict risk in conjunction with clinical history. Before 5 months' corrected age, the most predictive tools for detecting risk are term-age magnetic resonance imaging (86%-89% sensitivity), the Prechtl Qualitative Assessment of General Movements (98% sensitivity), and the Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination (90% sensitivity). After 5 months' corrected age, the most predictive tools for detecting risk are magnetic resonance imaging (86%-89% sensitivity) (where safe and feasible), the Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination (90% sensitivity), and the Developmental Assessment of Young Children (83% C index). Topography and severity of cerebral palsy are more difficult to ascertain in infancy, and magnetic resonance imaging and the Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination may be helpful in assisting clinical decisions. In high-income countries, 2 in 3 individuals with cerebral palsy will walk, 3 in 4 will talk, and 1 in 2 will have normal intelligence.Conclusions and relevanceEarly diagnosis begins with a medical history and involves using neuroimaging, standardized neurological, and standardized motor assessments that indicate congruent abnormal findings indicative of cerebral palsy. Clinicians should understand the importance of prompt referral to diagnostic-specific early intervention to optimize infant motor and cognitive plasticity, prevent secondary complications, and enhance caregiver well-being.

Aim: While deformational plagiocephaly (DP) is suspected to be associated with comorbidities, their nature and prevalence are unclear. This scoping review aims to report DP comorbidities occurring until the age of 2 years, their prevalence and whether they depend on the child's age and sex. Methods: Relevant studies were identified by searching the Cochrane, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed and EBSCO databases from 1992 to 30 April 2021. Data on study characteristics, comorbidities and assessment instruments were extracted and qualitatively synthesised. Risk of bias was assessed and studies with high risk of bias were excluded. Results: Studies meeting selection criteria (n = 27) often evaluated groups from tertiary clinics, implying selection bias. Studies reported on developmental delay (n = 16), limited speech production (n = 1), auditory (n = 3), visual (n = 3), mandibular (n = 3) and neurological impairments (n = 1). The data did not allow prevalence calculation or modifying effect of sex. Due to biased data, the review provided no evidence on DP comorbidities. Weak evidence suggested that in the selective samples, DP was associated with motor and language delays in the first year. Conclusion: Due to biased data, no evidence on comorbidity in infants with DP was available. Our study underlined the need of risk of bias assessment in scoping reviews. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motor skills and movement-related functioning significantly shape how children experience and interact with the world around them. Among infants and young children, developmental motor disorders contribute to delays with motor, cognitive, and psychosocial development. Early and accurate identification of these disorders is necessary to facilitate timely access to therapeutic interventions that minimize the long-term effects of disability on everyday activities and participation. In the United States, motor assessments commonly used among children 0 to 3 years focus on completion of specific motor skills at a single point in time, which provides only a part of the greater picture that is a child's motor and movement-related functioning. Video-capture methods, like the General Movements Assessment (GMA) and the Infant Motor Profile (IMP), offer greater accuracy and predictive power to (1) identify motor deficits in young children and (2) facilitate early access to supportive, therapeutic intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This commentary examines the provisions for early childhood development (ECD) in the global action plan for rehabilitation published by the World Health Organisation (WHO) within the context of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for inclusive education. The meeting reports of the WHO Rehabilitation 2030 for 2017 and 2019 and the related documents were reviewed along with ECD policy documents from WHO, UNICEF, UNESCO, and the World Bank. The importance of a life-course approach to rehabilitation for the health and wellbeing of persons with disabilities was highlighted in the Rehabilitation 2030. However, the critical and foundational role of rehabilitation in ECD for children with disabilities to facilitate inclusive education, especially in low- and middle-income countries as envisioned by the SDG 4.2, was not clearly addressed. Children under 5 years with developmental delays and disabilities who are not developmentally on track in health and psychosocial wellbeing require timely rehabilitation to ensure that they benefit from inclusive education. The culture and practice of rehabilitation should be nurtured from infancy as an indispensable component of ECD to adequately prepare children with developmental disabilities for inclusive education and ensure effective rehabilitation services over the life course. Rehabilitation is an integral and critical component of early childhood development to optimise school readiness for children with developmental disabilities. Routine newborn screening, developmental assessment, and surveillance of children from birth are foundational to any effective rehabilitation in early childhood. Global investment to promote and support rehabilitation services from early childhood within the health systems and across all levels of service delivery including community settings is warranted to achieve the sustainable development goals for children with disabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the findings of a study conducted by the Dutch Lifelines Cohort on the risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) running in families. DCD is a condition characterized by motor problems that interfere with daily activities. The study used a large population-based cohort and found evidence suggesting that the risk of DCD is familial, indicating a possible genetic background. However, the study has limitations, such as a low response rate and the inability to diagnose DCD. Overall, the findings support the emerging evidence of a familial predisposition to DCD. [Extracted from the article]

During the past two decades, awareness of the role of the family in the child's life has increased and the term "family-centred services" (FCS) has been introduced to facilitate care for children with special needs and their families. It is, however, unclear how various early intervention programmes incorporate family involvement in service delivery. The present study systematically analyses the nature of family involvement in six frequently used early intervention programmes for infants at high risk of developmental disorders: neurodevelopmental treatment, treatment according to Vojta, Conductive Education, Infant Health and Development Program, Infant Behaviour Assessment and Intervention Program, and Coping with and Caring for infants with special needs--a family-centred programme (COPCA). The analysis shows that the role of the family is diverse: it varies from parent training to be a therapist without attention to family function (in Vojta) to the autonomous family that receives coaching (COPCA). The data suggest two trends over time: (1) from child-focused to family-focused orientation; and (2) from professionally directed guidance to coaching based on equal partnership. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Research over the past three decades has shown that early intervention in infants biologically at risk of developmental disorders, irrespective of the presence of a brain lesion, is associated with improved cognitive development in early childhood without affecting motor development. However, at present it is unknown whether early intervention is also able to improve developmental outcome in infants with a serious lesion of the brain. This paper discusses factors that might play a role in the effect of early intervention. The following picture emerged from the limited evidence available: (1) coaching of parents seems an effective means of intervention; (2) our understanding of the plasticity of the developing human brain is currently too limited to allow a direct practical implementation in early intervention; (3) intervention before term age should primarily focus on stress reduction, intervention after term age on stimulation of infant development; and (4) our knowledge of the best ways to stimulate infant development is scant. Nevertheless, preliminary data suggest that offering the infant ample opportunities to explore by self-produced motor activities the borders of their own abilities might be a good strategy for promoting developmental outcome, including functional mobility.

Aim: Abnormal general movements at around 3 months corrected age indicate a high risk of cerebral palsy (CP). We aimed to determine whether specific movement characteristics can improve the predictive power of definitely abnormal general movements. Method: Video recordings of 46 infants with definitely abnormal general movements at 9 to 13 weeks corrected age (20 males; 26 females; median gestational age 30wks; median birthweight 1200g) were analysed for the following characteristics: presence of fidgety, cramped synchronized, stiff, or jerky movements and asymmetrical tonic neck reflex pattern. Neurological condition (presence or absence of CP), gross motor development (Alberta Infant Motor Scales), quality of motor behaviour (Infant Motor Profile), functional mobility (Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory), and Mental Developmental Index (Bayley Scales) were assessed at 18 months corrected age. Infants were excluded from participating in the study if they had severe congenital anomalies or if their caregivers had an insufficient knowledge of the Dutch language. Results: Of the 46 assessed infants, 10 developed spastic CP (Gross Motor Function Classification System levels I to V; eight bilateral spastic CP, two unilateral spastic CP). The absence of fidgety movements and the presence of predominantly stiff movements were associated with CP (Fisher's exact test, p = 0.018 and p = 0.007 respectively) and lower Infant Motor Profile scores (Mann-Whitney "U" test, p = 0.015 and p = 0.022 respectively); stiff and predominantly stiff movements were associated with lower Alberta Infant Motor Scales scores (Mann-Whitney "U" test, p = 0.01 and p = 0.004 respectively). Cramped synchronized movements and the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex pattern were not related to outcome. None of the movement characteristics were associated with Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory scores or the Mental Developmental Index. Interpretation: The assessment of fidgety movements and movement stiffness may improve the predictive power of definitely abnormal general movements for developmental outcome. However, the presence of fidgety movements does not preclude the development of CP.

Aim: The aim of this study was to improve the understanding of brain function in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in relation to minor neurological dysfunctions (MNDs). Method: We studied MNDs in 122 children (93 males, 29 females; mean age 8y 1mo, SD 2y 6mo) who, among a total cohort of 705 children (513 males, 192 females; mean age 9y, SD 2y 0.5mo) referred to a regional outpatient non-academic psychiatric centre in the Netherlands, were diagnosed with ASD after an extensive multidisciplinary psychiatric assessment. Children with clear neurological abnormalities (e.g. cerebral palsy or spina bifida) were excluded from the study. MNDs were assessed in all 705 children using the Touwen examination method. Special attention was paid to the severity and type of MND. Data of the children with ASD were compared with neurological morbidity data of children with other psychiatric disorders and with children in the general population, who were born at Groningen University Hospital between 1975 and 1978. Results: Seventy-four percent of the children with ASD showed complex MNDs compared with 52% of the children with other psychiatric disorders and 6% of the reference group (chi[superscript 2] = 18.0, p less than 0.001; chi[superscript 2] = 937.5, p less than 0.001 respectively). Specific dysfunctions frequently encountered in ASD were dysfunctional posture and muscle tone, fine manipulative disability, dyscoordination, and excessive associated movements. Conclusion: These findings suggest a contribution of dysfunctional supraspinal networks involving multiple parts of the brain in the pathogenesis of ASD. This is consistent with findings from neuroimaging studies, and highlights the importance of neurological examinations in paediatric psychiatric assessments.

Aim: Little is known of minor neurological dysfunction (MND) in infancy. This study aimed to evaluate the inter-assessor reliability of the assessment of MND with the Touwen Infant Neurological Examination (TINE) and the construct and predictive validity of MND in infancy. Method: Inter-assessor agreement was determined in a sample of 40 infants (24 males, 16 females) aged 3 to 12 months (25 born at term: gestational age 37-41wks, median 39; and 15 born preterm, gestational age 24-35wks, median 32). Thirty typically developing term infants (18 males, 12 females; gestational age 37-42wks, median 40) and 59 preterm infants (34 males, 25 females) born at less than 35 weeks' gestation (gestational age 25-34wks, median 29) participated in the validity study. They were neurologically assessed with the TINE at the corrected ages of 4, 6, 10, and 12 months and with the Hempel assessment at 18 months. Results: The findings indicated that MND can be assessed reliably (inter-assessor agreement: kappa=0.83). MND during infancy was related to prenatal, perinatal, and social factors, and in particular to preterm birth. Neurological condition during infancy was prone to change, but was related to neurological condition at 18 months at all ages tested. Interpretation: We conclude that MND can be determined reliably in infancy. Important considerations in the construct of MND in infancy are its relation to prenatal and perinatal factors, its limited stability, and its moderate predictive value. (Contains 5 tables.)

A reliable and valid instrument to assess neuromotor condition in infancy is a prerequisite for early detection of developmental motor disorders. We developed a video-based assessment of motor behaviour, the Infant Motor Profile (IMP), to evaluate motor abilities, movement variability, ability to select motor strategies, movement symmetry, and fluency. The IMP consists of 80 items and is applicable in children from 3 to 18 months. The present study aimed to test intra- and interobserver reliability and concurrent validity of the IMP with the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) and Touwen neurological examination. The study group consisted of 40 low-risk term (median gestational age [GA] 40wks, range 38-42wks) and 40 high-risk preterm infants (median GA 29.6wks, range 26-33wks) with corrected ages 4 to 18 months (31 females, 49 males). Intra- and interobserver agreement of the IMP were satisfactory (Spearman's "rho"=0.9). Concurrent validity of IMP and AIMS was good (Spearman's "rho"=0.8, p less than 0.005). The IMP was able to differentiate between infants with normal neurological condition, simple minor neurological dysfunction (MND), complex MND, and abnormal neurological condition (p less than 0.005). This means that the IMP may be a promising tool to evaluate neurological integrity during infancy, a suggestion that needs confirmation by means of assessment of larger groups of infants with heterogeneous neurological conditions.

The present paper reviews the methods available for neurological or neuromotor evaluation at preschool age. General textbooks on pediatric neurology describe the neurological examination at preschool age in terms of the assessment of the evaluation of cranial nerves, muscle tone, muscle power, reflexes, and the presence of abnormal movements. They stress the fact that assessment at preschool age is difficult because of the time needed to achieve the child's cooperation. Noncooperation at the preschool neurological exam is associated with an increased risk for learning and behavioral problems at school age. At present three age-specific and standardized test for neurological or neuromotor evaluation at preschool age are available. The method of Amiel-Tison and Gosselin, of which information can be accessed easily, has the drawback that it focuses on muscle tone and reflexes. It pays little attention to the quality of spontaneous motor behavior. The other two methods, i.e., the neuromotor behavioral inventory (NBI) and the Hempel assessment, are probably more promising in terms of assessment of minor neurological dysfunction as these methods pay ample attention to the child's quality of motor behavior. All methods have in common that information in terms of concurrent validity is scarce, with no information on predictive validity. This means that further research on applicability and validity of preschool neuromotor assessment is urgently needed. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Aim: To evaluate whether infants with complex congenital heart disease (CCHD) have an increased risk of impaired quality of motor behavior and delayed motor milestones. Method: A cohort of 69 infants with CCHD (43 males, 26 females) were assessed with the Infant Motor Profile (IMP) at three time periods between 6 to 18 months, mean ages in months (SD): 6.4 (0.7); 12.7 (1.0); 18.5 (0.7) IMP data were available from a reference sample of 300 Dutch infants. Analyses included multivariable logistic regression analysis to estimate differences in IMP scores below the 15th centile between children with CCHD and the reference group, and linear mixed‐effects models to assess the effect of ventricular physiology and systemic oxygen saturation (SpO2) of less than 90% on IMP outcomes. Results: Infants with CCHD had increased risks of total IMP scores below the 15th centile (lowest odds ratio [OR] at 18mo: 6.82 [95% confidence interval {CI} 2.87–16.19]), especially because of lower scores in the domains of variation, adaptability, and performance. Children with single ventricle CCHD scored consistently 3.03% (95% CI 1.00–5.07) lower than those with two ventricle physiology, mainly from contributions of the variation and performance domains. SpO2 of less than 90% was associated with 2.52% (95% CI 0.49–4.54) lower IMP scores. Interpretation: CCHD, especially single ventricle physiology, increases risk of impaired motor development. What this paper adds: Complex congenital heart disease (CCHD) substantially increases risk of impaired motor development.CCHD is associated with motor delay and reduced motor variation and adaptability.Single ventricle physiology increases the risk of impaired motor behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior to the launch of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, childhood disability was rarely considered an important subject in global health. The SDGs till 2030 now require that children under 5 years who are at risk of not benefitting from inclusive quality education are identified, monitored, and promptly supported. A new tool for identifying children who are not developmentally on track has been developed by UNICEF but has limited sensitivity for detecting children with disabilities due to reliance on parental assessment of child behavior in certain everyday situations. In this paper, we identified conditions that are commonly associated with developmental disabilities based on the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes and clarified the concept of "developmentally on track" as it relates to children with developmental disabilities and developmental delays. We summarized the latest evidence on the global burden of developmental disabilities in children under 5 years based on the diagnostic and functional approaches for measuring disabilities at the population level. We highlighted the global health context for addressing the needs of children with developmental disabilities and provided an overview of the opportunities and the role of pediatric caregivers in supporting children with developmental disabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]