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To elucidate the adaptation of the right ventricle to acute and intermittently sustained afterload elevation, targeted preload reductions and afterload increases were implemented in a porcine model involving 12 pigs. Preload reduction was achieved via balloon occlusion of the inferior vena cava before, immediately and 5 min after acute afterload elevation induced by pulmonary artery occlusion or thromboxane A2 analog (U46619) infusion. Ventricular response was monitored by registration of pressure-volume (PV) loops using a conductance catheter. The end-systolic pressure-volume relationship (ESPVR) during pure preload reduction was adequately described by linear regression (mean and SEM slope of ESPVR (Ees) 0.414 ± 0.064 mmHg/ml), reflecting the classical Frank-Starling mechanism (FSM). The ESPVR during acute afterload elevation exhibited a biphasic trajectory with significantly distinct slopes (mean and SEM Ees bilin1: 1.256 ± 0.066 mmHg ml; Ees bilin2: 0.733 ± 0.063 mmHg ml, p < 0.001). The higher slope during the first phase in the absence of ventricular dilation could be explained by a reduced amount of shortening deactivation (SDA). The changes in PV-loops during the second phase were similar to those observed with a preload intervention. The persistent increase in afterload resulted in an increase in the slopes of ESPVR and preload recruitable stroke work (PRSW) with a slight decrease in filling state, indicating a relevant Anrep effect. This effect became more pronounced after 5 min or TXA infusion. This study demonstrates, for the first time, the relevance of intrinsic mechanisms of cardiac autoregulation in the right ventricle during the adaptation to load. The SDA, FSM, and Anrep effect could be differentiated and occurred successively, potentially with some overlap. Notably, the Anrep effect serves to prevent ventricular dilation., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: Previous studies have shown cardiac abnormalities in acute liver injury, suggesting a potential role in the associated high mortality., Methods: We designed an experimental study exploring the short-term effects of acute cholestasis-induced liver injury on cardiac function and structure in a rodent bile duct ligation (BDL) model to elucidate the potential interplay. Thirty-seven male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to BDL surgery ( n = 28) or served as sham-operated ( n = 9) controls. Transthoracic echocardiography, Doppler evaluation of the left anterior descending coronary artery, and myocardial contrast echocardiography were performed at rest and during adenosine and dobutamine stress 5 days after BDL. Immunohistochemical staining of myocardial tissue samples for hypoxia and inflammation as well as serum analysis were performed., Results: BDL animals exhibited acute liver injury with elevated transaminases, bilirubin, and total circulating bile acids (TBA) 5 days after BDL (TBA control: 0.81 ± 2.54 µmol/L vs. BDL: 127.52 ± 57.03 µmol/L; p < 0.001). Concurrently, cardiac function was significantly impaired, characterized by reduced cardiac output (CO) and global longitudinal strain (GLS) in the echocardiography at rest and under pharmacological stress (CO rest control: 120.6 ± 24.3 mL/min vs. BDL 102.5 ± 16.6 mL/min, p = 0.041; GLS rest control: -24.05 ± 3.8% vs. BDL: -18.5 ± 5.1%, p = 0.01). Myocardial perfusion analysis revealed a reduced myocardial blood flow at rest and a decreased coronary flow velocity reserve (CFVR) under dobutamine stress in the BDL animals (CFVR control: 2.1 ± 0.6 vs. BDL: 1.7 ± 0.5 p = 0.047). Immunofluorescence staining indicated myocardial hypoxia and increased neutrophil infiltration., Conclusions: In summary, acute cholestasis-induced liver injury can lead to impaired cardiac function mediated by coronary microvascular dysfunction, suggesting that major adverse cardiac events may contribute to the mortality of acute liver failure. This may be due to endothelial dysfunction and direct bile acid signaling.

The effect of liver cirrhosis on vascular remodeling in vivo remains unknown. Therefore, this study investigates the influence of cholestatic liver cirrhosis on carotid arterial remodeling. A total of 79 male Sprague Dawley rats underwent bile duct ligation (cirrhotic group) or sham surgery (control group) and 28 days later left carotid artery balloon dilatation; 3, 7, 14 and 28 days after balloon dilatation, the rats were euthanized and carotid arteries were harvested. Histological sections were planimetrized, cell counts determined, and systemic inflammatory parameters measured. Up to day 14 after balloon dilatation, both groups showed a comparable increase in neointima area and degree of stenosis. By day 28, however, both values were significantly lower in the cirrhotic group (% stenosis: 20 ± 8 vs. 42 ± 10, p = 0.010; neointimal area [mm 2 ]: 0.064 ± 0.025 vs. 0.138 ± 0.025, p = 0.024). Simultaneously, cell density in the neointima ( p = 0.034) and inflammatory parameters were significantly higher in cirrhotic rats. This study demonstrates that cholestatic liver cirrhosis in rats substantially increases neointimal cell consolidation between days 14 and 28. Thereby, consolidation proved important for the degree of stenosis. This may suggest that patients with cholestatic cirrhosis are at lower risk for restenosis after coronary intervention.

Cirrhotic patients often suffer from cirrhotic cardiomyopathy (CCM). Previous animal models of CCM were inconsistent concerning the time and mechanism of injury; thus, the temporal dynamics and cardiac vulnerability were studied in more detail. Rats underwent bile duct ligation (BDL) and a second surgery 28 days later. Cardiac function was assessed by conductance catheter and echocardiography. Histology, gene expression, and serum parameters were analyzed. A chronotropic incompetence (P d31 < 0.001) and impaired contractility at rest and a reduced contractile reserve (P d31 = 0.03, P dob-d31 < 0.001) were seen 31 days after BDL with increased creatine (P d35 , P d42 , and P d56 < 0.05) and transaminases (P d31 < 0.001). A total of 56 days after BDL, myocardial fibrosis was seen (P d56 < 0.001) accompanied by macrophage infiltration (CD68: P group < 0.001) and systemic inflammation (TNFα: P group < 0.001, white blood cell count: P group < 0.001). Myocardial expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC1α) was increased after 31 (P d31 < 0.001) and decreased after 42 (P d42 < 0.001) and 56 days (P d56 < 0.001). Caspase-3 expression was increased 31 and 56 days after BDL (P d31 = 0.005; P d56 = 0.005). Structural changes in the myocardium were seen after 8 weeks. After the second surgery (second hit), transient myocardial insufficiency with secondary organ dysfunction was seen, characterized by reduced contractility and contractile reserve.

Severity assessment in animals is an ongoing field of research. In particular, the question of objectifiable and meaningful parameters of score-sheets, as well as their best combination, arise. This retrospective analysis investigates the suitability of a score-sheet for assessing severity and seeks to optimise it for predicting survival in 89 male Sprague Dawley rats ( Rattus norvegicus ), during an experiment evaluating the influence of liver cirrhosis by bile duct ligation (BDL) on vascular healing. The following five parameters were compared for their predictive power: (i) overall score; (ii) relative weight loss; (iii) general condition score; (iv) spontaneous behaviour score; and (v) the observer's assessment whether pain might be present. Suitable cut-off values of these individual parameters and the combination of multiple parameters were investigated. A total of ten rats (11.2%; 10/89) died or had to be sacrificed at an early stage due to pre-defined humane endpoints. Neither the overall score nor any individual parameter yielded satisfactory results for predicting survival. Using retrospectively calculated cut-off values and combining the overall score with the observer's assessment of whether the animal required analgesia (dipyrone) for pain relief resulted in an improved prediction of survival on the second post-operative day. This study demonstrates that combining score parameters was more suitable than using single ones and that experienced human judgement of animals can be useful in addition to objective parameters in the assessment of severity. By optimising the score-sheet and better understanding the burden of the model on rats, this study contributes to animal welfare., Competing Interests: This work was supported by B Braun-Stiftung [grant number BBST-D-18-00022]. MMe’s appropriations were funded by RWTH Aachen University (programme ROTATION). RHT received funds in part from the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft - DFG; FOR-2591; grant numbers TO 542/5-1 and TO 542/6-1; 2016). The funders had no influence on the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript. JCK, MAH, MJH, MU, MMo, AB, RR and MH declare no potential conflict of interest., (© The Author(s) 2023.)

The physical fitness of patients with terminal heart failure and an implanted left ventricular assist device (LVAD) might be improved by load-adaptive control of the LVAD. In this study, three control strategies for LVAD were compared in eight pigs: (1) a constant stroke work (CSW) control strategy that ensures a constant ventricular load using ventricular stroke work as the control variable; (2) a work ratio (WR) controller that maintains a constant ratio of ventricular work to hydraulic pump work; and (3) a controller that maintains the pump pace at a constant speed (CS). Biventricular heart insufficiency was induced by increased isoflurane application, and preload, afterload, and contractility alterations were performed. LVAD speed changes were significantly more pronounced in all load interventions with the CSW control strategy (preload: P < 0.001 vs. CS and P = 0.004 vs. WR; afterload: P < 0.001 vs. CS and P < 0.001 vs. WR; contractility: P < 0.001 vs. CS and P < 0.001 vs. WR). However, a significant difference in systemic flow only became evident in the experiments upon afterload increase ( P < 0.001 vs. CS and P = 0.004 vs. WR). An implementation of an evolved version of the CSW control strategy that dispenses with invasively measured parameters might be feasible for clinical use., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare., (Copyright © ASAIO 2022.)

Liver cirrhosis has been associated with an increased risk of coronary artery disease and clinical complications following percutaneous coronary revascularization. The present study is based on the hypothesis that cirrhosis may influence intimal hyperplasia following PCI. Sera from 10 patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis and 10 age-matched healthy controls were used to stimulate cultured human coronary artery smooth muscle cells (HCASMC) for 48 h. HCASMC proliferation, migration, gene expression and apoptosis were investigated. Serum concentrations of growth factors and markers of liver function were also determined in patients and healthy controls. Treatment of HCASMC with patient sera reduced cell proliferation and migration ( p < 0.05 vs. healthy controls), whereas apoptosis was unaffected ( p = 0.160). Expression of genes associated with a synthetic vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype was decreased in cells stimulated with serum from cirrhotic patients (RBP1, p = 0.001; SPP1, p = 0.003; KLF4, p = 0.004). Platelet-derived growth factor-BB serum concentrations were lower in patients ( p = 0.001 vs. controls). The results suggest the presence of circulating factors in patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis affecting coronary smooth muscle cell growth. These findings may have implications for clinical outcomes following percutaneous coronary revascularization in these patients.

To investigate whether acute liver failure (ALF) leads to secondary acute myocardial injury, 100 ALF patients that were retrospectively identified in a single center based on ICD 10 codes and 8 rats from an experimental study that died early after bile duct ligation (BDL) were examined. Creatine kinase (CK), creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme (CKMB) and cardiac troponin-I (cTnI) were analyzed as markers of myocardial injury. For histological analysis, hematoxylin-eosin (HE), elastic Van Gieson (EVG), CD41 and myeloperoxidase were used to stain rat hearts. Major adverse cardiac events (MACEs) were a critical factor for mortality (p = 0.037) in human ALF. Deceased patients exhibited higher levels of CKMB than survivors (p = 0.023). CKMB was a predictor of mortality in ALF (p = 0.013). Animals that died early after BDL exhibited increased cTnI, CKMB, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels compared to controls (cTnI: p = 0.011, CKMB: p = 0.008, TNFα: p = 0.003, IL-6: p = 0.006). These animals showed perivascular lesions and wavy fibers, microthrombi and neutrophilic infiltration in the heart. MACEs are decisive for mortality in human ALF, and elevated CKMB values indicate that this might be due to structural myocardial damage. Accordingly, CKMB was found to have predictive value for mortality in ALF. The results are substantiated by data from a rat BDL model demonstrating diffuse myocardial injury., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The linearity and load insensitivity of the end-systolic pressure-volume-relationship (ESPVR), a parameter that describes the ventricular contractile state, are controversial. We hypothesize that linearity is influenced by a variable overlay of the intrinsic mechanism of autoregulation to afterload (shortening deactivation) and preload (Frank-Starling mechanism). To study the effect of different short-term loading alterations on the shape of the ESPVR, experiments on twenty-four healthy pigs were executed. Preload reductions, afterload increases and preload reductions while the afterload level was increased were performed. The ESPVR was described either by a linear or a bilinear regression through the end-systolic pressure volume (ES-PV) points. Increases in afterload caused a biphasic course of the ES-PV points, which led to a better fit of the bilinear ESPVRs (r 2 0.929 linear ESPVR vs. r 2 0.96 and 0.943 bilinear ESPVR). ES-PV points of a preload reduction on a normal and augmented afterload level could be well described by a linear regression (r 2 0.974 linear ESPVR vs. r 2 0.976 and 0.975 bilinear ESPVR). The intercept of the second ESPVR (V0) but not the slope demonstrated a significant linear correlation with the reached afterload level (effective arterial elastance Ea). Thus, the early response to load could be described by the fixed slope of the ESPVR and variable V0, which was determined by the actual afterload. The ESPVR is only apparently nonlinear, as its course over several heartbeats was affected by an overlay of SDA and FSM. These findings could be easily transferred to cardiovascular simulation models to improve their accuracy.

The implantation of a left ventricular assist device (LVAD) is often the only therapy in terminal heart failure (HF). However, despite technical advancements, the physical fitness of the patients is still limited. One strategy to improve the benefits of ventricular assist device therapy might be the implementation of load adaptive control strategies. Two control strategies and a constant speed controller (CS) were implemented in an acute animal model where four healthy pigs received LVAD implantations. In the first strategy (preload recruitable stroke work [SW] controller, PRS), the desired pump work was computed in relation to the end-diastolic volume. In the second strategy, the controller was programmed to keep a fixed ratio of the mean hydraulic power of the assist device to the mean hydraulic power of the left ventricle (power relation controller, PR). Preload reduction, afterload increase experiments and short-term coronary artery occlusions were conducted to test the behavior of the control strategies under variable conditions. Within the experiments, the PR controller demonstrated the best preload sensitivity. The PRS controller had the best response to an increased afterload and to a reduced ventricular contractility in terms of effectively preventing ventricular overloading and increasing VAD support. No significant differences in systemic flow were observed., (© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston.)

Objective: A simple but reliable and safe anaesthetic procedure is required for surgical interventions in small rodents. Combined ketamine and xylazine injections are often used in rats for less invasive surgery, possibly with spontaneous breathing and without airway management. However, there are important pitfalls to be avoided by special precautions and monitoring, as shown subsequently., Study Design: Observational study., Animals: Twenty-four anaesthetic procedures for bile duct ligation, sham operation or carotid artery dilatation in 20 male Sprague-Dawley rats, preoperatively weighing between 440 and 550 g., Methods: Intolerable high mortality rates occurred in the first 7 postoperative days while establishing a new experimental model in rats using ketamine-xylazine anaesthesia. Rats were spontaneously breathing ambient air during the first 12 surgeries without airway management. An observed high mortality rate in these animals led to a change in the trial protocol: the insufflation of 2 litres of oxygen per minute via nose cone during the following 12 rat surgeries. Retrospective comparison of the outcome (without oxygen vs. with oxygen insufflation) was conducted., Results: The perioperative mortality rate could be significantly reduced from 58% (7/12) to 17% (2/12) (p = 0.036) by oxygen insufflation via nose cone. Significantly different levels of intraoperative oxygen saturation (SpO2; 89 ± 4% [without oxygen] vs. 97 ± 0.5% [with oxygen], p < 0.0001), but no significant differences in heart rate (HR; 267 ± 7 beats minute-1 [bpm] [without oxygen] vs. 266 ± 6 bpm [with oxygen], p = 0.955) were observed., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: In summary, rats under ketamine-xylazine anaesthesia are susceptible to hypoxia. This may lead to increased delayed mortality related to hypoxia induced lung failure. Apparently, this is an underestimated problem. We highly recommend using additional oxygen insufflation in spontaneously breathing rats under ketamine-xylazine anaesthesia with basic monitoring such as measurement of oxygen saturation., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.