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Objectives: Cortisol is an important metabolic hormone that regulates multiple physiologic systems. Cortisol metabolism is sensitive to early life environments, including that experienced prenatally. Limited research has evaluated factors that predict variation in maternal and offspring toddler hair cortisol, which is important since hair cortisol represents different dynamics of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA)‐axis function than more common salivary or serum measures. Methods: To address this gap, we longitudinally evaluated whether maternal depression measured in pregnancy and 1 month postnatal was associated with maternal and offspring hair cortisol levels approximately 15 months after birth (n = 46 mothers, 40 toddlers; mean 15.6 months postnatal, SD = 2.9 months). Results: Mean depression symptoms were highest during the prenatal period. Prenatal, but not postnatal, maternal depression was associated with offspring hair cortisol levels (B = 0.095, p =.01). Maternal hair cortisol was not associated with depression measured at either time point. Conclusions: These findings indicate that offspring hair cortisol more than a year after birth is associated with maternal prenatal depression, consistent with previous research in salivary cortisol, suggesting that long‐term offspring stress physiology may be influenced by conditions experienced in utero. These findings highlight the potential for hair cortisol—a minimally invasive and easy‐to‐collect measure— to index toddler HPA‐axis dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)—a gastric bacteria affecting almost 50% of the global population and leading to ulcers and cancer in severe cases—is a growing health concern among Indigenous populations who report a high burden of reported poor general health and gastrointestinal distress. We test hypothesized associations between H. pylori exposure patterns and environmental, social, and biological conditions among a sample of 212 Indigenous Awajún adults (112 males, 100 females, ages 18–65 years) living in the northern Peruvian Amazon. Materials and Methods: Dried blood spots were analyzed for H. pylori‐specific IgG using a recently developed enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay. Resulting seropositivity rates and antibody concentrations, proxying past exposures to H. pylori were analyzed in relation to relevant environmental (toilet type, floor material, reported water quality), social (household size and education level), and biological (age, sex, BMI, blood pressure, immune and metabolic biomarkers) factors using multivariable regression analyses. Results: We found near ubiquitous seropositivity for H. pylori exposure in our sample (99.1% seropositive). In the regression analyses, elevations in H. pylori antibody concentrations were significantly higher among males compared to females (β = 0.36, p = 0.01). No associations were found with any other factors. Discussion: Anthropological research in the study communities suggests that the male bias in elevations of H. pylori antibody concentrations is related to cultural and biological factors. Future research is needed to further unravel these biocultural dynamics and determine whether elevations in H. pylori antibody concentrations have clinical relevance for gastrointestinal health outcomes in this population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundMarket integration (MI)-increasing production for and consumption from a market-based economy-is drastically altering traditional ways of life and environmental conditions among indigenous Amazonian peoples. The effects of MI on the biology and health of Amazonian children and adolescents, however, remain unclear.AimThis study examines the impact of MI on sub-adult body size and nutritional status at the population, regional and household levels among the Shuar of Amazonian Ecuador.Subjects and methodsAnthropometric data were collected between 2005-2014 from 2164 Shuar (aged 2-19 years) living in two geographic regions differing in general degree of MI. High-resolution household economic, lifestyle and dietary data were collected from a sub-sample of 631 participants. Analyses were performed to investigate relationships between body size and year of data collection, region and specific aspects of household MI.ResultsResults from temporal and regional analyses suggest that MI has a significant and overall positive impact on Shuar body size and nutritional status. However, household-level results exhibit nuanced and heterogeneous specific effects of MI underlying these overarching relationships.ConclusionThis study provides novel insight into the complex socio-ecological pathways linking MI, physical growth and health among the Shuar and other indigenous Amazonian populations.

ObjectivesInformation concerning physical growth among small-scale populations remains limited, yet such data are critical to local health efforts and to foster basic understandings of human life history and variation in childhood development. Using a large dataset and robust modeling methods, this study aims to describe growth from birth to adulthood among the indigenous Shuar of Amazonian Ecuador.MethodsMixed-longitudinal measures of height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) were collected from Shuar participants (n = 2,463; age: 0-29 years). Centile growth curves and tables were created for each anthropometric variable of interest using Generalized Additive Models for Location, Scale, and Shape (GAMLSS). Pseudo-velocity and Lambda-Mu-Sigma curves were generated to further investigate Shuar patterns of growth and to facilitate comparison with United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention and multinational World Health Organization growth references.ResultsThe Shuar are small throughout life and exhibit complex patterns of growth that differ substantially from those of international references. Similar to other Amazonians, Shuar growth in weight compares more favorably to references than growth in height, resulting in BMI curves that approximate international medians. Several additional characteristics of Shuar development are noteworthy, including large observed variation in body size early in life, significant infant growth faltering, extended male growth into adulthood, and a markedly early female pubertal growth spurt in height. Phenotypic plasticity and genetic selection in response to local environmental factors may explain many of these patterns.ConclusionsProviding a detailed reference of growth for the Shuar and other Amazonian populations, this study possesses direct clinical application and affords valuable insight into childhood health and the ecology of human growth.

Objectives: Biocultural perspectives combining methods and theories from biological and cultural anthropology are needed to better understand socioeconomic and race‐based health inequities in the United States. For example, the developmental trajectories of gastrointestinal health disparities based on embodied (i.e., internalized) inequities in resource access and environmental pathogen exposure are poorly understood. Here, we present a preliminary exploration of these relationships among 20 children (aged 3–14 years) from 12 families living in a low‐resource, predominantly Black, rural Mississippi community. Methods: Relationships between fecal calprotectin levels (FC; biomarker of intestinal inflammation measured from stool samples), BMI‐for‐age/Height‐for‐age z‐scores (calculated from standard anthropometric measures), household income/size (from parent interviews), and parasitic worm (helminth) infection status (detected in stool samples by 18 s rRNA gene amplification/sequencing) were tested using bootstrap linear regression and ANOVA/ANCOVA tests. Results: About 80% of sampled children had clinically elevated FC (> 50 μg/g). BMI z‐scores (95%CI = −154.63; −7.34) and household income (95%CI = −135.90; −16.44) were negatively associated with FC levels. Household size was positively associated with FC levels (95%CI = 4.65, 101.61). Helminth infections were detected (n = 6), with positive associations between infection and the FC level (p < 0.05) that were likely driven by two infected children with very high FC levels. Conclusion: The high levels of intestinal inflammation in this small sample of children suggest that gastrointestinal health disparities may appear in childhood. We explore how these disparities may be related to inequities in environmental exposures, nutritional and socioeconomic status, and barriers to medical care and resource access. Intestinal inflammation levels (mean fecal calprotectin) were significantly higher in children infected with platyhelmints (flatworms; Figure 2A), but this relationship appears to be driven by two infected children with very high levels of inflammation (Figure 2b) and more complex, interconnected factors are likely at play. Figure captions refer in meta xml. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infant social–emotional development may be impacted by the COVID‐19 pandemic. This study investigated associations between maternal pre‐ and postnatal pandemic‐related concerns and social–emotional developmental risk. Data, collected in 2020–2021, came from 220 mothers (87% white, 6% Hispanic, 1% Black, 3% Asian, 1% American Indian, Mage = 32.46 years), and infants (53.18% male, Mage = 12.98 months) in the United States. Maternal postnatal pandemic‐related concerns were associated with total risk scores (B = 6.09, p‐value <.001) and offspring risk of scoring positive for problems related to inflexibility (B = 4.07, p‐value =.006). The total score association was moderated by self‐reported social support. Infants may be detrimentally impacted by the pandemic via maternal pandemic‐related concerns. Maternal social support may buffer infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Intestinal infections with helminths (parasitic worms) and protists (single‐celled eukaryotes) may be neglected health issues in low‐resource communities across the United States. Because they predominantly infect school‐aged children and can lead to nutritional deficiencies and developmental delays, these infections can affect lifelong health. More research is needed to understand the prevalence and risk factors of these parasitic infections in the United States. Methods: A total of 24 children (ages 0.5–14 years) from a low‐resource, rural Mississippi Delta community provided stool samples for 18s rRNA amplification and sequencing to determine infection presence. Parent/guardian interviews provided age, sex, and household size to test for associations with infection. Results: Infections were found in 38% (n = 9) of the samples. 25% (n = 6) of participants were infected with helminths (platyhelminths [n = 5]; nematodes [n = 2]), while 21% (n = 5) were infected with protists (Blastocystis [n = 4]; Cryptosporidium [n = 1]). There were no associations between infection status and age, sex, or household size. Problematically, analytical methods did not allow for more specific classifications for helminth species. Conclusions: These preliminary findings suggest parasitic infections may be overlooked health issues in the rural Mississippi Delta and emphasize the need for more research on potential health outcomes within the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Physical function is positively associated with subjective well-being in older adults from high-income nations. This study tests whether this association is evident in low- and middle-income countries. Methods: Data were drawn from the study on global AGEing and adult health, using nationally representative samples of individuals over 50 years old from China, Ghana, India, Mexico, Russia, and South Africa. Participant interviews measured well-being (quality of life, mood, and happiness) and physical function (grip strength, usual and rapid gait speed). Logistic regressions tested relations between physical function and well-being variables within each country. Results: Higher physical function measures exhibited moderate, yet significant, associations with increased odds of highly rated well-being (p <.05). However, higher gait speeds were unexpectedly associated with decreased odds of highly rated well-being (p <.05) in South Africa and Russia. Conclusion: These results suggest that physical function is generally positively associated with perceived well-being in older individuals from lower income nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Point‐of‐care testing (POCT) allows researchers and health‐care providers to bring the lab bench to the field, providing essential health information that can be leveraged to improve health care, accessibility, and understanding across clinical and research settings. Gaps in health service access are most pronounced in what we term RIR settings—rural/remote regions, involving Indigenous peoples, and/or within resource‐limited settings. In these contexts, morbidity and mortality from infectious and non‐communicable diseases are disproportionately higher due to numerous geographic, economic, political, and sociohistorical factors. Human biologists and global health scholars are well‐positioned to contribute on‐the‐ground‐level insights that can serve to minimize global health inequities and POCT has the potential to augment such approaches. While the clinical benefits of POCT include increasing health service access by bringing testing, rapid diagnosis, and treatment to underserved communities with limited pathways to centralized laboratory testing, POCT also provides added benefits to both health‐focused researchers and their participants. Through portable, minimally invasive devices, researchers can provide actionable health data to participants by coupling POCT with population‐specific health education, discussing results and their implications, creating space for participants to voice concerns, and facilitating linkages to treatment. POCT can also strengthen human biology research by shedding light on questions of evolutionary and biocultural importance. Here, we expand on the epidemiological and research value, as well as practical and ethical challenges of POCT across stakeholders (i.e., participant, community, health researcher, and trainee). Finally, we emphasize the immense opportunities of POCT for fostering collaborative research and enhancing access to health delivery and information and, by extension, helping to mitigate persistent global health inequities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The rise and fall of the health technology startup Theranos is emblematic of the promise and peril of point‐of‐care testing (POCT). Instruments that deliver immediate results from minimally invasive samples at the location of collection can provide powerful tools to deliver health data in clinical and public health contexts. Yet, POCT availability is driven largely by market interests, which limits the development of inexpensive tests for diverse health conditions that can be used in resource‐limited settings. These constraints, combined with complex regulatory hurdles and substantial ethical challenges, have contributed to the underutilization of POCT in human biology research. Methods: We evaluate current POCT capabilities and limitations, discuss promising applications for POCT devices in resource‐limited settings, and discuss the future of POCT. Results: As evidenced by publication trends, POCT platforms have rapidly advanced in recent years, gaining traction among clinicians and health researchers. We highlight POCT devices of potential interest to population‐based researchers and present specific examples of POCT applications in human biology research. Conclusions: Several barriers can limit POCT applications, including cost, lack of regulatory approval for non‐clinical use, requirements for expensive equipment, and the dearth of validation in remote field conditions. Despite these issues, we see immense potential for emerging POCT technology capable of analyzing new sample types and used in conjunction with increasingly common technology (e.g., smart phones). We argue that the fallout from Theranos may ultimately provide an opportunity to advance POCT, leading to more ethical data collection and novel opportunities in human biology research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Leaving "home" to pursue fieldwork is a necessity but also a rite of passage for many biological anthropology/human biology scholars. Field‐based scientists prepare for the potential changes to activity patterns, sleep schedules, social interactions, and more that come with going to the field. However, returning from extended fieldwork and the reverse‐culture shock, discomforts, and mental shifts that are part of the return process can be jarring, sometimes traumatic experiences. A failure to acknowledge and address such experiences can compromise the health and wellbeing of those returning. Aims: We argue for an engaged awareness of the difficult nature of returning from the field and offer suggestions for individuals and programs to better train and prepare PhD students pursuing fieldwork. Materials & Methods: Here, we offer personal stories of "coming back" and give professional insights on how to best ready students and scholars for returning from fieldwork. Discussion/Conclusion: By bringing forward and normalizing the difficulty of the fieldwork‐return process, we hope that this reflection acts as a tool for future scholars to prepare to come home as successfully and consciously as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dietary patterns spanning millennia could inform contemporary public health nutrition. Children are largely absent from evidence describing diets throughout human evolution, despite prevalent malnutrition today signaling a potential genome-environment divergence. This systematic review aimed to identify dietary patterns of children ages 6 months to 10 years consumed before the widespread adoption of agriculture. Metrics of mention frequency (counts of food types reported) and food groups (globally standardized categories) were applied to: compare diets across subsistence modes [gatherer–hunter–fisher (GHF), early agriculture (EA) groups]; examine diet quality and diversity; and characterize differences by life course phase and environmental context defined using Köppen–Geiger climate zones. The review yielded child diet information from 95 cultural groups (52 from GHF; 43 from EA/mixed subsistence groups). Animal foods (terrestrial and aquatic) were the most frequently mentioned food groups in dietary patterns across subsistence modes, though at higher frequencies in GHF than in EA. A broad range of fruits, vegetables, roots and tubers were more common in GHF, while children from EA groups consumed more cereals than GHF, associated with poor health consequences as reported in some studies. Forty-eight studies compared diets across life course phases: 28 showed differences and 20 demonstrated similarities in child versus adult diets. Climate zone was a driver of food patterns provisioned from local ecosystems. Evidence from Homo sapiens evolution points to the need for nutrient-dense foods with high quality proteins and greater variety within and across food groups. Public health solutions could integrate these findings into food-based dietary guidelines for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Anemia is an important global health challenge. We investigate anemia prevalence among Indigenous Shuar of Ecuador to expand our understanding of population‐level variation, and to test hypotheses about how anemia variation is related to age, sex, and market integration. Methods: Hemoglobin levels were measured in a total sample of 1650 Shuar participants (ages 6 months to 86 years) from 46 communities between 2008 and 2017 to compare anemia prevalence across regions characterized by different levels of market integration. Results: Shuar anemia rates among children under 15 years (12.2%), adult women (10.5%), and adult men (5.3%) were less than half of those previously documented in other neo‐tropical Indigenous populations. Anemia prevalence did not vary between more traditional and market integrated communities (OR = 0.47, p =.52). However, anemia was negatively associated with body mass index (OR = 0.47, p =.002). Conclusions: Compared to other South American Indigenous populations, anemia prevalence is relatively low among Shuar of Ecuador and invariant with market integration. Understanding this pattern can provide valuable insights into anemia prevention among at‐risk populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The COVID‐19 pandemic has led to unprecedented levels of unemployment and financial strain for many Americans. Among the individuals impacted by financial strain are pregnant women, for whom added financial stress may be particularly impactful due to the costs associated with prenatal care and providing for a newborn. Financial stress has been previously associated with elevated depression symptoms among pregnant women, which could have significant impacts on birth outcomes and long‐term offspring health. However, the impacts of COVID‐19‐associated financial stress on maternal depression in pregnancy has not been investigated. Methods: Here, we evaluated whether COVID‐19‐associated financial stress was associated with increased likelihood of a clinically significant depression score (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Score ≥ 15) among pregnant women living in the United States during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Data come from an online survey administered to a convenience sample in April 2020 (N = 2099). Results: Forty‐three percent of participants reported experiencing financial stress as a result of the pandemic, while 24% of participants had a clinically significant depression score. COVID‐19‐related financial stress was significantly associated with increased likelihood of a clinically significant depression score, even after adjustment for covariates including participant education and income (adjusted Odds Ratio: 2.23, 95% CI = 1.80, 2.77, P <.001). Conclusions: Financial stress caused by the COVID‐19 pandemic is associated with more than two times the likelihood of depression during pregnancy, which could impact birth outcomes and long‐term offspring health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Increasing obesity rates and accelerating climate change represent two global health challenges shaped by lifestyle change and human environmental modifications. Yet, few studies have considered how these issues may interact to exacerbate disease risk. Methods: In this theory article, we explore evidence that obesity‐related disease and climatic changes share socio‐ecological drivers and may interact to increase human morbidity and mortality risks. Additionally, we consider how obesity‐climate change interactions may disproportionately affect vulnerable populations and how anthropological research can be applied to address this concern. Results: Interactions between heat stress and cardiometabolic disease represent an important pathway through which climate change and obesity‐related morbidities may jointly impair health. For example, individuals with higher body fatness and obesity‐related metabolic conditions (eg, type 2 diabetes) exhibit a reduced ability to dissipate heat. The risk of poor health resulting from these interactions is expected to be heterogeneous, with low‐ and middle‐income countries, individuals of lower socioeconomic status, and minority populations facing a greater disease burden due to relative lack of resource access (eg, air conditioning). Moreover, older adults are at higher risk due to aging‐associated changes in body composition and loss of thermoregulation capabilities. Conclusions: Few policy makers appear to be considering how interventions can be designed to simultaneously address the medical burden posed by increasing obesity rates and climate change. Anthropological research is well situated to address this need in a nuanced and culturally‐sensitive way; producing research that can be used to support community resilience, promote holistic well‐being, and improve health outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energetic investment in human reproduction has long been recognized as costly, influencing developmental, physiological, and behavioral patterns in males and females. These effects are largely coordinated through the actions of reproductive hormones (eg, testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone). Here, the utility and limitations of minimally invasive sampling techniques are explored, providing a novel perspective on how reproductive hormone measurements can enhance reproductive endocrinology research. Salivary steroid measures are most commonly used, although several dried blood spot and urine assays are also available, and researchers continue to explore the efficacy of other sample types. These relatively simple measures have facilitated the collection of multiple samples from a single participant, allowing researchers to more accurately track the diurnal and cyclical variation exhibited by many reproductive hormones. Ultimately, the ability to collect fine‐grained participant data allows biological anthropologists to better test questions central to human reproductive ecology, life history theory, and public health. For example, fieldwork using these techniques suggests that testosterone profile variation across populations is influenced by energetic constraints and reproductive status. Moreover, hormone concentrations shape the development of sex characteristics, with implications for evolutionary questions related to sexual selection. Hormone levels also can be used to identify a range of medical concerns (eg, suppressed hormone production levels linked with psychosocial stress). These findings highlight how minimally invasive collection techniques can be applied to test diverse evolutionary hypotheses and identify important health concerns. Still, more work is needed to standardize collection and laboratory analysis procedures, thereby enabling more direct data comparisons between researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively affected physical and mental health worldwide. Pregnant women already exhibit an elevated risk for depression compared to the general public, a pattern expected to be exacerbated by the pandemic. Certain lifestyle factors, including moderate exercise, may help support mental health during pregnancy, but it is unclear how the pandemic may impact these associations across different locations. Here, we test whether: (i) reported exercise routine alterations during the pandemic are associated with depression scores; and, (ii) the likelihood of reporting pandemic-related exercise changes varies between women living in metro areas and those in non-metro areas. Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from the COVID-19 And Reproductive Effects (CARE) study, an online survey of pregnant women in the United States. Participants were recruited April-June 2020 (n = 1,856). Linear regression analyses assessed whether reported COVID-19-related exercise change was associated with depression score as measured by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Survey. Logistic regression analyses tested whether a participant's Rural-Urban Continuum Code classification of "metro" was linked with higher odds of reporting exercise changes compared to a "non-metro" classification. Results: Women who reported exercise changes during the pandemic exhibited significantly higher depression scores compared to those reporting no changes. Moreover, individuals living in metro areas of all sizes were significantly more likely to report exercise changes compared to women living in non-metro areas. Conclusions: These results suggest that the ability to maintain an exercise routine during the pandemic may help support maternal mental health. It may therefore be prudent for providers to explicitly ask patients how the pandemic has impacted their exercise routines and consider altered exercise routines a potential risk factor for depression. An effort should also be made to recommend exercises that are tailored to individual space restrictions and physical health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections have many negative health outcomes (e.g., diarrhea, nutritional deficiencies) that can also exacerbate poverty. These infections are generally highest among low-income populations, many of which are also undergoing market integration (MI; increased participation in a market-based economy). Yet the direct impact of MI-related social and environmental changes on STH infection patterns is poorly understood, making it unclear which lifestyle factors should be targeted to better control disease spread. This cross-sectional study examines if household infrastructure associated with greater MI is associated with lower STH burdens among Indigenous Ecuadorian Shuar. Methods: Kato-Katz fecal smears were used to determine STH infection status and intensity (n = 620 participants; 308 females, 312 males, aged 6 months—86 years); Ascaris lumbricoides (ascarid) and Trichuris trichiura (whipworm) were the primary infection types detected. Structured interviews assessing lifestyle patterns (e.g., measures of household infrastructure) measured participant MI. Multilevel regression analyses and zero-inflated negative binomial regression models tested associations between MI measures and STH infection status or intensity, controlling for individual and community characteristics. Results: Participants residing in more market-integrated households exhibited lower infection rates and intensities than those in less market integrated households. Parasite infection status and T. trichiura infection intensity were lower among participants living in houses with wood floors than those with dirt floors, while individuals using well or piped water from a spring exhibited lower A. lumbricoides infection intensities compared to those using river or stream water. Unexpectedly, latrine type was not significantly related to STH infection status or intensity. These results suggest that sources of exposure differ between the two helminth species. Conclusions: This study documents associations between household measures and STH infection among an Indigenous population undergoing rapid MI. These findings can help healthcare programs better target interventions and reduce STH exposure among at-risk populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The novel virus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and the associated Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) represent a pathogen to which human beings have limited to no evolved immune response. The most severe symptoms are associated with overactive inflammatory immune responses, leading to a cytokine storm, tissue damage, and death, if not balanced and controlled. Hypotheses within Evolutionary Medicine, including the Hygiene/Old Friends Hypothesis, provide an important lens through which to understand and possibly control this overactive immune response. In this article, we explore the role that infection with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs; i.e. intestinal parasitic worms) may play in dampening SARS-CoV-2 symptoms and mitigating the worst COVID-19 outcomes. Specifically, STHs stimulate the immunosuppressive and regulatory T-helper 2 (TH2) branch of the immune system, which decreases ACE2-receptor expression (i.e. receptors SARS-CoV-2 uses to infect host cells), balances the inflammatory TH1/TH17 branches of the immune system triggered by SARS-CoV-2 infection, and reduces inflammation through the release of anti-inflammatory/regulatory cytokines. Because STHs are common and affect the most vulnerable and marginalized members of society, it is especially important to consider how these parasites may impact COVID-19 outcomes. Areas experiencing endemic STH infections are often characterized by a lack of preventative infrastructure and medical care, which may further exacerbate risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 development. For this reason, we also explore biocultural factors that contribute to disease outcomes for both SARS-CoV-2 and STH infections. Biocultural and Evolutionary Medicine perspectives on COVID-19 are crucial for understanding the global impact of the disease. Lay summary: An evolutionary perspective is required to understand the global impact and various presentations of COVID-19. We consider how coinfection with soil-transmitted helminths (common parasitic worms that coevolved with humans) may suppress inflammatory immune activity, thereby potentially reducing COVID-19 disease severity. Structural and lifestyle factors shaping coinfection patterns are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Little research exists documenting levels of intestinal inflammation among indigenous populations where exposure to macroparasites, like soil‐transmitted helminths (STHs), is common. Reduced STH exposure is hypothesized to contribute to increased prevalence of elevated intestinal inflammation in wealthy nations, likely due to coevolutionary histories between STHs and human immune systems that favored anti‐inflammatory pathways. Here, we document levels of intestinal inflammation and test associations with STH infection among the Shuar of Ecuador, an indigenous population undergoing socioeconomic/lifestyle changes that influence their hygienic environment. We predict that fecal calprotectin (FC; a measure of intestinal inflammation) will be lower in STH infected individuals and that FC will be negatively associated with infection intensity. Methods: Stool samples to analyze FC levels and STH infection were collected from 69 Shuar participants (ages 5–75 years). Children (<15 years) and adults (15+ years) were analyzed separately to understand the role of exposure in immune system development and the intestinal inflammatory response. Results: Two species of STH were present: Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura. The relationships between infection and intestinal inflammation were age‐ and species‐specific. While no significant relationships were found among adults, children who were singly infected with T. trichiura had lower FC levels than uninfected children. Infection intensity was not significantly associated with FC in children or adults. Conclusions: These preliminary results provide limited support for our hypotheses, documenting tentative age‐ and species‐specific associations between FC and infection status. Findings may point to the importance of species‐specific STH exposure during immune system development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Links between sleep length and cognitive decline were tested among older Mexicans. • Increased sleep length in healthy baseline sleepers impaired aspects of cognition. • Overall cognitive function was most strongly associated with sleep changes. • Increased sleep length may be a risk factor for some types of cognitive decline. Alterations in sleep patterns are common among older adults; further, short and long sleep durations have been linked with impaired cognitive performance in older individuals. Yet most research examining these relationships has been cross-sectional, limited to high-income nations, and has failed to consider how changes in sleep duration may impact cognitive decline. The present longitudinal study uses nationally-representative data to test whether changes in sleep length among "healthy" baseline sleepers are associated with reduced cognitive function in older Mexican adults (> 50 years old) at follow-up. Data were drawn from the first and second waves of the World Health Organization's Study on global AGEing and adult health. Self-report data captured sleep duration over two nights, and five cognitive tests (immediate and delayed verbal recall, forward and backward digit span, and verbal fluency) were used to measure various cognitive domains and create a composite z-score of cognitive performance. Linear regressions were performed to assess associations between sleep length changes and cognitive decline, controlling for relevant lifestyle and health factors. Increased sleep durations at follow-up among individuals who reported intermediate sleep durations (6–9 h/night) at baseline were significantly associated with greater rates of decline in overall cognitive function. Longer sleepers also trended toward greater rates of decline for attention/working memory and executive function. This study suggests that long sleep durations are a risk factor for certain types of impaired cognition among older adults living in a middle-income country. These findings are clinically important given the growing rates of dementia and aging populations globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Perceived income adequacy is positively associated with self-rated health (SRH) and quality of life (QOL) among adults in higher-income countries. Additionally, older individuals often report higher levels of income adequacy. However, it is unclear if these associations, documented primarily in high-income countries, are also evident across economically and culturally distinctive low- and middle-income countries. Methods Data were drawn from the World Health Organization's Study on global AGEing and adult health (SAGE), a study of adults aged 50 years or older in China, Ghana, India, Mexico, the Russian Federation, and South Africa. Smaller samples of younger adults (18–49 years) were included for comparison purposes. Participants reported income adequacy, SRH, and QOL. Associations between age and income adequacy and between income adequacy and SRH/QOL were examined using country-specific logistic regression analysis. Results Older adults in China and Russia were more likely to report better income adequacy than their 18- to 49-year-old counterparts; however, the opposite was observed in Ghana and India. SRH and QOL improved as income adequacy increased in all countries. Discussion As expected, income adequacy was correlated with SRH and QOL. However, the relationship between age and income adequacy varied cross-culturally, potentially due to differences in familial and governmental financial support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses research on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the birth plans of pregnant women in the U.S., based on the data collected between April 16-20, 2020 for the online survey entitled "COVID-19 And Reproductive Effects (CARE)." Results include the percentage of respondents who preferred out-of-hospital birth, and the COVID-related reasons for birth plan alterations including the worry of being separated from their newborns and the restrictions on visitors.

Background: Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infection peaks during childhood and varies by sex. The impact of market integration (MI) (increasing production for and consumption from a market-based economy) on these infection patterns, however, is unclear. In this study, STH infection is examined by sex and age among indigenous Shuar inhabiting two regions of Amazonian Ecuador: (1) the modestly market-integrated Upano Valley (UV) and (2) the more traditional Cross-Cutucú (CC) region. Methods: Kato-Katz fecal smears were examined for parasite presence and infection intensity. Factorial ANOVAs and post hoc simple effects analyses were performed by sex to compare infection intensity between regions and age categories (infant/child, juvenile/adolescent, adult). Results: Significant age and regional differences in Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infection were detected. Overall, infants/children and juveniles/adolescents displayed higher parasite loads than adults. CC females exhibited higher A. lumbricoides loads than UV females, while the opposite pattern was observed for T. trichiura infection in males. Conclusions: Regional infection patterns varied by sex and parasite species, perhaps due to MI-linked environmental and lifestyle changes. These results have public health implications for the identification of individuals at risk for infection and contribute to ongoing efforts to track changes and alleviate STH infection in indigenous populations undergoing MI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Objectives Knemometry, the precise measurement of lower leg (LL) length, suggests that childhood short-term (e.g., weekly) growth is a dynamic, nonlinear process. However, owing to the large size and complexity of the traditional knemometer device, previous study of short-term growth among children has been restricted predominantly to clinical settings in industrialized Western nations. The aim of the present study is to address this limitation and promote broader understandings of global variation in childhood development by: (1) describing a custom-built portable knemometer and assessing its performance in the field; and (2) demonstrating the potential application of such a device by characterizing childhood short-term LL growth among the indigenous Shuar of Amazonian Ecuador. Materials and Methods Mixed-longitudinal LL length data were collected weekly from 336 Shuar children age 5-12 years old using the custom portable knemometer ( n = 1,145 total observations). Device performance and Shuar short-term LL growth were explored using linear mixed effects models and descriptive statistics. Results The portable knemometer performed well across a range of participant characteristics and possesses a low technical error of measurement of 0.18 mm. Shuar childhood LL growth averages 0.47 mm/week (SD = 0.75 mm/week), but exhibits large between- and within-individual variation. Discussion Knemometry can be reliably performed in the field, providing a means for evaluating childhood short-term growth among genetically and ecologically diverse populations. Preliminary findings suggest that Shuar weekly LL growth is comparable in mean magnitude but likely more variable than reported for healthy Western children. Future work will further explore these patterns. Am J Phys Anthropol 160:353-357, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Self-reported (SR) body mass index (BMI) values are often used to determine obesity prevalence. However, individuals frequently overestimate their height and underestimate their weight, resulting in artificially lower obesity prevalence rates. These patterns are especially apparent among older adults and overweight individuals. The present cross-sectional study uses nationally representative datasets from five countries to assess the accuracy of SR BMI values in diverse settings. Methods: Samples of older adults (=50 years old) and comparative samples of younger adults (18-49 years old) were drawn from five middle-income countries (China, India, Mexico, Russian Federation, and South Africa) in the World Health Organization's Study on global AGEing and adult health (SAGE). Participant-reported and researcher-obtained height and weight measures were used to calculate SR and measured BMI, respectively. Paired t-tests assessed differences between SR and measured BMI values by country. Linear regressions examined the contribution of measured weight and age to differences between SR and measured BMI. Results: Significant differences between SR and measured BMI values were observed (p < 0.05), but the direction of these discrepancies varied by country, age, and sex. Measured weight significantly contributed to differences between SR and measured BMI in all countries (p < 0.01). Age did not contribute significantly to variation in BMI discrepancy, except in China (p < 0.001). Conclusions: These results suggest that SR BMI may not accurately reflect measured BMI in middle-income countries, but the direction of this discrepancy varies by country. This has considerable implications for obesity-related disease estimates reliant on SR data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Changes in sleep patterns often occur in older adults. Previous studies have documented associations between sleep duration, sleep quality, and obesity risk in older individuals, yet few studies have examined these trends in lower-income countries. The present cross-sectional study uses nationally representative datasets from six countries to examine these relationships. Methods Two hypotheses related to obesity risk and sleep patterns were tested using data from the first wave of the World Health Organization's Study on global AGEing and adult health (SAGE). This longitudinal study draws on samples of older adults ( >50 years old) in six middle-income countries (China, Ghana, India, Mexico, Russian Federation, and South Africa). Self-report data were used to measure sleep duration, sleep quality, lifestyle and sociodemographic information, while anthropometric measurements were collected to assess body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC). Multiple linear regressions were used to examine the relationship between sleep patterns and obesity risk while controlling for lifestyle factors. Results Shorter sleep durations in both men and women were significantly associated with higher BMI and WC measures ( P < 0.05). Low sleep quality did not significantly contribute to increased obesity risk. Surprisingly, high sleep quality was significantly associated with increased male BMI and WC in China and India ( P < 0.01). Conclusions This study documented an association between short sleep duration and increased obesity risk, which is important given the global increase of obesity-related diseases. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 26:803-812, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of harmful conditions which occur together, such as insulin resistance, abdominal obesity, and hypertension. The global prevalence of MetS is growing rapidly, with some estimates suggesting over one billion people worldwide experience increased morality and disease rates linked with this syndrome. One possible factor contributing to MetS risk is changes in microbiome composition. Approximately 100 trillion bacteria and other microbes reside in the human intestinal tract, collectively termed the gut microbiome. Humans and microbes share a long evolutionary history, with many of these microbes influencing human health outcomes. However, environmental conditions have changed dramatically with human technological innovations; many of these changes (e.g. diets high in processed foods and sedentary lifestyles) appear to impact human-microbe relationships. In general, recent changes in diet and activity patterns have been linked to decreased microbiome diversity, elevating inflammation and metabolic disease risk and likely promoting the development of MetS. Targeting patient diet or exercise patterns may therefore help doctors better treat patients suffering from MetS. Still, additional work is needed to determine how the microbiome responds to changes in patient activity and diet patterns across culturally and biologically diverse human populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cassava beer, or chicha, is typically consumed daily by the indigenous Shuar people of the Ecuadorian Amazon. This traditional beverage made from cassava tuber (Manihot esculenta) is thought to improve nutritional quality and flavor while extending shelf life in a tropical climate. Bacteria responsible for chicha fermentation could be a source of microbes for the human microbiome, but little is known regarding the microbiology of chicha. We investigated bacterial community composition of chicha batches using Illumina high-throughput sequencing. Fermented chicha samples were collected from seven Shuar households in two neighboring villages in the Morona-Santiago region of Ecuador, and the composition of the bacterial communities within each chicha sample was determined by sequencing a region of the 16S ribosomal gene. Members of the genus Lactobacillus dominated all samples. Significantly greater phylogenetic similarity was observed among chicha samples taken within a village than those from different villages. Community composition varied among chicha samples, even those separated by short geographic distances, suggesting that ecological and/or evolutionary processes, including human-mediated factors, may be responsible for creating locally distinct ferments. Our results add to evidence from other fermentation systems suggesting that traditional fermentation may be a form of domestication, providing endemic beneficial inocula for consumers, but additional research is needed to identify the mechanisms and extent of microbial dispersal.

Objectives Methods Results Conclusions The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and its primary end product, the glucocorticoid cortisol, are major components of the evolved human stress response. However, most studies have examined these systems among populations in high‐income settings, which differ from the high pathogen and limited resource contexts in which the HPA axis functioned for most of human evolution.We investigated variability in diurnal salivary cortisol patterns among 298 Indigenous Shuar from Amazonian Ecuador (147 males, 151 females; age 2–86 years), focusing on the effects of age, biological sex, and body mass index (BMI) in shaping differences in diurnal cortisol production. Saliva samples were collected three times daily (waking, 30 minutes post‐waking, evening) for three consecutive days to measure key cortisol parameters: levels at waking, the cortisol awakening response, the diurnal slope, and total daily output.Age was positively associated with waking levels and total daily output, with Shuar juveniles and adolescents displaying significantly lower levels than adults (p < .05). Sex was not a significant predictor of cortisol levels (p > .05), as Shuar males and females displayed similar patterns of diurnal cortisol production across the life course. Moreover, age, sex, and BMI significantly interacted to moderate the rate of diurnal cortisol decline (p = .027). Overall, Shuar demonstrated relatively lower cortisol concentrations than high‐income populations.This study expands the documented range of global variation in HPA axis activity and diurnal cortisol production and provides important insights into the plasticity of human stress physiology across diverse developmental and socioecological settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Rising global obesity rates are linked with inflammation and associated morbidities. These negative outcomes are generally more common in low-resource communities within high-income countries; however, it is unclear how frequent infectious disease exposures in these settings may influence the relationship between adiposity and inflammation., Aim: We test associations between adiposity measures and distinct forms of inflammation among adults ( n  = 80) living in low-resource U.S. communities experiencing high levels of obesity and pathogen exposure., Subjects and Methods: Adiposity measures included BMI and percent body fat. Inflammation measures included systemic inflammation (C-reactive protein [CRP]) and localised intestinal inflammation (faecal calprotectin [FC]). The relationship between a condition characterised by elevated inflammation ( Helicobacter pylori infection) and adiposity was also considered., Results: Adiposity was not significantly related to FC concentration. However, both adiposity measures were positively related with odds of CRP elevation and H. pylori infection was associated with significantly lower adiposity measures (all p  < 0.05)., Conclusion: For this disadvantaged U.S. sample, the association between adiposity and inflammation varies by the systemic/localised nature of inflammation and the likely underlying cause of inflammation. Defining these associations will improve understanding of how rising obesity rates shape long-term health inequities, with implications for more effective intervention design.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented rates of unemployment in the United States. Pregnant workers may be especially affected as they are over-represented in low-wage service and hospitality industries impacted by the pandemic. We surveyed an online convenience sample of currently working pregnant people living in the U.S. ( n = 1,417) to determine whether COVID-19-related changes to how long individuals planned to work during their pregnancy, and uncertainty about these changes, were associated with prenatal depression. As hypothesized, both COVID-19-related work-plan changes (OR = 1.81, 95% CI 1.36-2.42, p < 0.001) and uncertainty about the precise nature of these changes (OR = 2.62, 95% CI 1.14-6.0, p = 0.022) were associated with significantly higher odds of a clinically-significant depression score. These effects appeared to be even greater among individuals who continued working outside the home during the pandemic. Since the U.S. is one of the few countries in the world that does not guarantee paid parental leave, pregnant people may be forced to choose between keeping their jobs and risking infection during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our results demonstrate a need for immediate suspension of the eligibility requirements for the Family and Medical Leave Act and/or universal access to both paid family leave and prenatal depression screening. This would help to alleviate these concerns and provide pregnant people with more options while preserving their employment status and financial security., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Sherin, Gildner and Thayer.)

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted maternity care decisions, including plans to change providers or delivery location due to pandemic-related restrictions and fears. A relatively unexplored question, however, is how the pandemic may shape future maternity care preferences post-pandemic. Here, we use data collected from an online convenience survey of 980 women living in the United States to evaluate how and why the pandemic has affected women's future care preferences. We hypothesize that while the majority of women will express a continued interest in hospital birth and OB/GYN care due to perceived safety of medicalized birth, a subset of women will express a new interest in out-of-hospital or "community" care in future pregnancies. However, factors such as local provider and facility availability, insurance coverage, and out-of-pocket cost could limit access to such future preferred care options. Among our predominately white, educated, and high-income sample, a total of 58 participants (5.9% of the sample) reported a novel preference for community care during future pregnancies. While the pandemic prompted the exploration of non-hospital options, the reasons women preferred community care were mostly consistent with factors described in pre-pandemic studies, (e.g. a preference for a natural birth model and a desire for more person-centered care). However, a relatively high percentage (34.5%) of participants with novel preference for community care indicated that they expected limitations in their ability to access these services. These findings highlight how the pandemic has potentially influenced maternity care preferences, with implications for how providers and policy makers should anticipate and respond to future care needs., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Gildner and Thayer.)

Evidence suggests that cognitive decline in older adults is influenced by cardiovascular health (CVH), with metabolic and vascular mechanisms hypothesized to underlie the etiology of cognitive impairment. Research in high-income nations suggests that improved CVH is linked with decreased cognitive impairment risk, but it is unclear if this pattern is evident in low-income countries. Nationally-representative data collected in China were drawn from the World Health Organization's Study on global AGing and adult health Wave 1 (2007-2010; n = 11,295). Seven CVH factors were classified as "ideal" or "not ideal": smoking and drinking frequency, body mass index, physical activity level, blood pressure, diet, and self-reported anxiety. Additionally, scores from five cognitive performance tests (immediate and delayed verbal recall, forward and backward digit span, verbal fluency) were used to create a composite cognitive function variable. Linear regression analyses tested whether ideal CVH measures were associated with higher composite cognitive performance, controlling for sociodemographic factors. As hypothesized, ideal CVH was generally associated with higher cognitive performance. Low anxiety levels and reliable access to sufficient food (including produce) were particularly associated with higher cognitive function. These results suggest early detection and controlling modifiable CVH risks may protect aging individuals in China from cognitive decline.

Economic development is marked by dramatic increases in the incidence of microbiome-associated diseases, such as autoimmune diseases and metabolic syndromes, but the lifestyle changes that drive alterations in the human microbiome are not known. We measured market integration as a proxy for economically related lifestyle attributes, such as ownership of specific market goods that index degree of market integration and components of traditional and nontraditional (more modern) house structure and infrastructure, and profiled the fecal microbiomes of 213 participants from a contiguous, indigenous Ecuadorian population. Despite relatively modest differences in lifestyle across the population, greater economic development correlated with significantly lower within-host diversity, higher between-host dissimilarity, and a decrease in the relative abundance of the bacterium Prevotella . These microbiome shifts were most strongly associated with more modern housing, followed by reduced ownership of traditional subsistence lifestyle-associated items. IMPORTANCE Previous research has reported differences in the gut microbiome between populations residing in wealthy versus poorer countries, leading to the assertion that lifestyle changes associated with economic development promote changes in the gut microbiome that promote the proliferation of microbiome-associated diseases. However, a direct relationship between economic development and the gut microbiome has not previously been shown. We surveyed the gut microbiomes of a single indigenous population undergoing economic development and found significant associations between features of the gut microbiome and lifestyle changes associated with economic development. These findings suggest that even the earliest stages of economic development can drive changes in the gut microbiome, which may provide a warning sign for the development of microbiome-associated diseases.

Background: Alterations in sleep architecture are common among older adults. Previous studies have documented associations between sleep duration, sleep quality, and cognitive performance in older individuals, yet few studies have examined these trends using population-based samples from non-Western societies. The present cross-sectional study uses nationally representative datasets from six countries to test several hypotheses related to sleep patterns and cognitive function., Methods: Data were drawn from the first wave of the World Health Organization's study on global ageing and adult health (SAGE), a longitudinal study using samples of older adults (≥ 50 years old) in 6 middle-income countries (China, Ghana, India, Russian Federation, South Africa, and Mexico). Self-report data provided information on sleep quality and sleep duration over the previous 2 nights, and 5 cognitive tests (immediate and delayed verbal recall, forward and backward digit span, and verbal fluency) were used to create a composite z-score of cognitive performance., Results: Individuals with intermediate sleep durations (> 6-9 h/night) exhibited significantly higher cognitive scores than individuals with short sleep (0-6 h/night; p < 0.001) or long sleep duration (> 9 h/night; p < 0.001). Self-reported sleep quality was positively correlated with cognitive z-score (p < 0.05). Significant sex differences were observed; men generally had higher sleep quality and cognitive scores, while women reported longer sleep durations., Discussion: This study documented positive correlations between cognitive scores and sleep quality, and between cognitive z-scores and intermediate sleep duration. These findings are clinically important given the growing rates of dementia and aging populations globally.