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ObjectiveEvaluate safety of Ovaprene, an investigational non-hormonal vaginal contraceptive designed for monthly use.Study designOpen-label, multicenter study enrolling heterosexually-active women with previous permanent contraception who underwent assessments during five menstrual cycles: baseline postcoital test cycle, diaphragm postcoital test cycle, Ovaprene safety cycle, and two Ovaprene postcoital test cycles. Safety outcomes included treatment emergent adverse events (TEAEs), systemic laboratory findings, pelvic examinations, colposcopies, Nugent scores, determination of community state types of vaginal microbiota, and anti-Escherichia coli activity and inflammatory markers in cervicovaginal fluids.ResultsWe enrolled 38 participants. Of these, 33 used Ovaprene and completed 77 Ovaprene cycles. The most common product-related urogenital TEAEs were bacterial vaginosis (BV) and vaginal odor. The frequency of transitioning from Lactobacillus-dominated community state type to community state type IV (not Lactobacillus-dominated) was similar before Ovaprene use and afterwards. Mean Nugent scores were

Abstract Background Clustering of sequences into operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and denoising methods are a mainstream stopgap to taxonomically classifying large numbers of 16S rRNA gene sequences. Environment-specific reference databases generally yield optimal taxonomic assignment. Results We developed SpeciateIT, a novel taxonomic classification tool which rapidly and accurately classifies individual amplicon sequences ( https://github.com/Ravel-Laboratory/speciateIT ). We also present vSpeciateDB, a custom reference database for the taxonomic classification of 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequences from vaginal microbiota. We show that SpeciateIT requires minimal computational resources relative to other algorithms and, when combined with vSpeciateDB, affords accurate species level classification in an environment-specific manner. Conclusions Herein, two resources with new and practical importance are described. The novel classification algorithm, SpeciateIT, is based on 7th order Markov chain models and allows for fast and accurate per-sequence taxonomic assignments (as little as 10 min for 107 sequences). vSpeciateDB, a meticulously tailored reference database, stands as a vital and pragmatic contribution. Its significance lies in the superiority of this environment-specific database to provide more species-resolution over its universal counterparts.

Abstract Background A Lactobacillus-dominated vaginal microbiome provides the first line of defense against adverse genital tract health outcomes. However, there is limited understanding of the mechanisms by which the vaginal microbiome modulates protection, as prior work mostly described its composition through morphologic assessment and marker gene sequencing methods that do not capture functional information. To address this gap, we developed metagenomic community state types (mgCSTs) which use metagenomic sequences to describe and define vaginal microbiomes based on both composition and functional potential. Results MgCSTs are categories of microbiomes classified using taxonomy and the functional potential encoded in their metagenomes. MgCSTs reflect unique combinations of metagenomic subspecies (mgSs), which are assemblages of bacterial strains of the same species, within a microbiome. We demonstrate that mgCSTs are associated with demographics such as age and race, as well as vaginal pH and Gram stain assessment of vaginal smears. Importantly, these associations varied between mgCSTs predominated by the same bacterial species. A subset of mgCSTs, including three of the six predominated by Gardnerella vaginalis mgSs, as well as mgSs of L. iners, were associated with a greater likelihood of bacterial vaginosis diagnosed by Amsel clinical criteria. This L. iners mgSs, among other functional features, encoded enhanced genetic capabilities for epithelial cell attachment that could facilitate cytotoxin-mediated cell lysis. Finally, we report a mgSs and mgCST classifier for which source code is provided and may be adapted for use by the microbiome research community. Conclusions MgCSTs are a novel and easily implemented approach to reduce the dimension of complex metagenomic datasets while maintaining their functional uniqueness. MgCSTs enable the investigation of multiple strains of the same species and the functional diversity in that species. Future investigations of functional diversity may be key to unraveling the pathways by which the vaginal microbiome modulates the protection of the genital tract. Importantly, our findings support the hypothesis that functional differences between vaginal microbiomes, including those that may look compositionally similar, are critical considerations in vaginal health. Ultimately, mgCSTs may lead to novel hypotheses concerning the role of the vaginal microbiome in promoting health and disease, and identify targets for novel prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic strategies to improve women’s genital health. Video Abstract

Abstract Background High systemic estrogen levels contribute to breast cancer risk for postmenopausal women, whereas low levels contribute to osteoporosis risk. Except for obesity, determinants of non-ovarian systemic estrogen levels are undefined. We sought to identify members and functions of the intestinal microbial community associated with estrogen levels via enterohepatic recirculation. Methods Fifty-one epidemiologists at the National Institutes of Health, including 25 men, 7 postmenopausal women, and 19 premenopausal women, provided urine and aliquots of feces, using methods proven to yield accurate and reproducible results. Estradiol, estrone, 13 estrogen metabolites (EM), and their sum (total estrogens) were quantified in urine and feces by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. In feces, β-glucuronidase and β-glucosidase activities were determined by realtime kinetics, and microbiome diversity and taxonomy were estimated by pyrosequencing 16S rRNA amplicons. Pearson correlations were computed for each loge estrogen level, loge enzymatic activity level, and microbiome alpha diversity estimate. For the 55 taxa with mean relative abundance of at least 0.1%, ordinal levels were created [zero, low (below median of detected sequences), high] and compared to loge estrogens, β-glucuronidase and β-glucosidase enzymatic activity levels by linear regression. Significance was based on two-sided tests with α=0.05. Results In men and postmenopausal women, levels of total urinary estrogens (as well as most individual EM) were very strongly and directly associated with all measures of fecal microbiome richness and alpha diversity (R≥0.50, P≤0.003). These non-ovarian systemic estrogens also were strongly and significantly associated with fecal Clostridia taxa, including non-Clostridiales and three genera in the Ruminococcaceae family (R=0.57−0.70, P=0.03−0.002). Estrone, but not other EM, in urine correlated significantly with functional activity of fecal β-glucuronidase (R=0.36, P=0.04). In contrast, fecal β-glucuronidase correlated inversely with fecal total estrogens, both conjugated and deconjugated (R≤-0.47, P≤0.01). Premenopausal female estrogen levels, which were collected across menstrual cycles and thus highly variable, were completely unrelated to fecal microbiome and enzyme parameters (P≥0.6). Conclusions Intestinal microbial richness and functions, including but not limited to β-glucuronidase, influence levels of non-ovarian estrogens via enterohepatic circulation. Thus, the gut microbial community likely affects the risk for estrogen-related conditions in older adults. Understanding how Clostridia taxa relate to systemic estrogens may identify targets for interventions. Trial registration Not applicable.

Cel pracy: Celem badań była próba przeprowadzenia analizy zmiennych kinematycznych w poszczególnych fazach nawrotu parapływackiego. Materiał i metody: Zbadano 2 zawodników z niepełnosprawnością (klasy S6 i S14) w wieku 16 i 21 lat. U każdego badanego indywidualnie zarejestrowano kamerami GOPRO trzy rodzaje nawrotów koziołkowych z różnymi prędkościami dopływania do ściany. Filmy opracowano z wykorzystaniem programu Kinovea. Wyniki: Wyróżniono fazy nawrotu parapływackiego oraz przeprowadzono analizę zmiennych kinematycznych: sumaryczny czas nawrotu, prędkość dopłynięcia do ściany i prędkość odbicia, odległość od ściany, głębokość zanurzenia oraz kąt odbicia. Obliczone wartości zmiennych wykazywały indywidualne zróżnicowanie i związane były z rodzajem niepełnosprawności zawodników. Wnioski: Faza obrotu właściwego, jako najdłużej trwająca część nawrotu koziołkowego, wraz z analizą zmiennych umożliwia wprowadzenie istotnych zmian w celu skrócenia czasu nawrotu parapływackiego. Zdefiniowane zmienne oraz ich wzajemne zależności znacząco wpływają na realizację nawrotu. Kąt odbicia i prędkość odbicia zawodnika od ściany w znacznym stopniu warunkują dalszy przebieg i efektywność nawrotu. Zindywidualizowana analiza zmiennych kinematycznych pozwala na obserwację występujących przeciążeń podczas nawrotu koziołkowego, a tym samym umożliwia niezwłoczną korektę i zminimalizowanie ryzyka wystąpienia negatywnych skutków intensywnego treningu pływackiego.

BackgroundTaxonomic profiles of vaginal microbial communities can be sorted into a discrete number of categories termed community state types (CSTs). This approach is advantageous because collapsing a hyper-dimensional taxonomic profile into a single categorical variable enables efforts such as data exploration, epidemiological studies, and statistical modeling. Vaginal communities are typically assigned to CSTs based on the results of hierarchical clustering of the pairwise distances between samples. However, this approach is problematic because it complicates between-study comparisons and because the results are entirely dependent on the particular set of samples that were analyzed. We sought to standardize and advance the assignment of samples to CSTs.ResultsWe developed VALENCIA (VAginaL community state typE Nearest CentroId clAssifier), a nearest centroid-based tool which classifies samples based on their similarity to a set of reference centroids. The references were defined using a comprehensive set of 13,160 taxonomic profiles from 1975 women in the USA. This large dataset allowed us to comprehensively identify, define, and characterize vaginal CSTs common to reproductive age women and expand upon the CSTs that had been defined in previous studies. We validated the broad applicability of VALENCIA for the classification of vaginal microbial communities by using it to classify three test datasets which included reproductive age eastern and southern African women, adolescent girls, and a racially/ethnically and geographically diverse sample of postmenopausal women. VALENCIA performed well on all three datasets despite the substantial variations in sequencing strategies and bioinformatics pipelines, indicating its broad application to vaginal microbiota. We further describe the relationships between community characteristics (vaginal pH, Nugent score) and participant demographics (race, age) and the CSTs defined by VALENCIA.ConclusionVALENCIA provides a much-needed solution for the robust and reproducible assignment of vaginal community state types. This will allow unbiased analysis of both small and large vaginal microbiota datasets, comparisons between datasets and meta-analyses that combine multiple datasets. Video abstract.

We characterized the composition and structure of the vaginal microbiota in a cohort of 149 women with genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection at baseline who were followed quarterly for 9 months after antibiotic treatment. At time of diagnosis, the vaginal microbiota was dominated by Lactobacillus iners or a diverse array of bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria including Gardnerella vaginalis. Interestingly, L. iners-dominated communities were most common after azithromycin treatment (1 g monodose), consistent with the observed relative resistance of L. iners to azithromycin. Lactobacillus iners-dominated communities have been associated with increased risk of C. trachomatis infection, suggesting that the impact of antibiotic treatment on the vaginal microbiota could favor reinfections. These results provide support for the dual need to account for the potential perturbing effect(s) of antibiotic treatment on the vaginal microbiota, and to develop strategies to protect and restore optimal vaginal microbiota.

Abstract Background Nondrug supplement strategies to improve gut health have largely focused on the effects of individual compounds to improve one aspect of gut homeostasis. However, there is no comprehensive assessment of the reproducible effects of oral, short-term, low-level colostrum supplementation on gut inflammation status that are specific to the ileum. Herein, a chicken animal model highly responsive to even mild gut inflammatory stimuli was employed to compare the outcomes of feeding a standard diet (CON) to those of CON supplemented with a centrifuge-defatted bovine colostrum (BC) or a nonfat dried milk (NFDM) control on the efficiency of nutrient use, ileal morphology, gut nitro-oxidative inflammation status, metabolites, and the composition of the microbiota. Results A repeated design, iterative multiple regression model was developed to analyze how BC affected ileal digesta-associated anti-inflammatory metabolite abundance coincident with observed changes in the ileal microbiome, mitigation of epithelial inflammation, and ileal surface morphology. An improved whole body nutrient use efficiency in the BC group (v CON and NFDM) coincided with the observed increased ileum absorptive surface and reduced epithelial cell content of tyrosine-nitrated protein (NT, biomarker of nitro-oxidative inflammatory stress). Metabolome analysis revealed that anti-inflammatory metabolites were significantly greater in abundance in BC-fed animals. BC also had a beneficial BC impact on microbiota, particularly in promoting the presence of the bacterial types associated with eubiosis and the segmented filamentous bacteria, Candidatus Arthromitus. Conclusion The data suggest that an anti-inflammatory environment in the ileum was more evident in BC than in the other feeding groups and associated with an increased content of statistically definable groups of anti-inflammatory metabolites that appear to functionally link the observed interactions between the host’s improved gut health with an observed increase in whole body nutrient use efficiency, beneficial changes in the microbiome and immunometabolism.

The mechanism(s) by which Lactobacillus-dominated cervicovaginal microbiota provide a barrier to Chlamydia trachomatis infection remain(s) unknown. Here we evaluate the impact of different Lactobacillus spp. identified via culture-independent metataxonomic analysis of C. trachomatis-infected women on C. trachomatis infection in a three-dimensional (3D) cervical epithelium model. Lactobacillus spp. that specifically produce d(-) lactic acid were associated with long-term protection against C. trachomatis infection, consistent with reduced protection associated with Lactobacillus iners, which does not produce this isoform, and with decreased epithelial cell proliferation, consistent with the observed prolonged protective effect. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that epigenetic modifications involving histone deacetylase-controlled pathways are integral to the cross talk between host and microbiota. These results highlight a fundamental mechanism whereby the cervicovaginal microbiota modulates host functions to protect against C. trachomatis infection.IMPORTANCE The vaginal microbiota is believed to protect women against Chlamydia trachomatis, the etiologic agent of the most prevalent sexually transmitted infection (STI) in developed countries. The mechanism underlying this protection has remained elusive. Here, we reveal the comprehensive strategy by which the cervicovaginal microbiota modulates host functions to protect against chlamydial infection, thereby providing a novel conceptual mechanistic understanding. Major implications of this work are that (i) the impact of the vaginal microbiota on the epithelium should be considered in future studies of chlamydial infection and other STIs and (ii) a fundamental understanding of the cervicovaginal microbiota's role in protection against STIs may enable the development of novel microbiome-based therapeutic strategies to protect women from infection and improve vaginal and cervical health.

Abstract Background Vaginal bacterial communities dominated by Lactobacillus species are associated with a reduced risk of various adverse health outcomes. However, somewhat unexpectedly, many healthy women have microbiota that are not dominated by lactobacilli. To determine the factors that drive vaginal community composition we characterized the genetic composition and transcriptional activities of vaginal microbiota in healthy women. Results We demonstrate that the abundance of a species is not always indicative of its transcriptional activity and that impending changes in community composition can be predicted from metatranscriptomic data. Functional comparisons highlight differences in the metabolic activities of these communities, notably in their degradation of host produced mucin but not glycogen. Degradation of mucin by communities not dominated by Lactobacillus may play a role in their association with adverse health outcomes. Finally, we show that the transcriptional activities of L. crispatus, L. iners, and Gardnerella vaginalis vary with the taxonomic composition of the communities in which they reside. Notably, L. iners and G. vaginalis both demonstrate lower expression of their cholesterol-dependent cytolysins when co-resident with Lactobacillus spp. and higher expression when co-resident with other facultative and obligate anaerobes. The pathogenic potential of these species may depend on the communities in which they reside and thus could be modulated by interventional strategies. Conclusions Our results provide insight to the functional ecology of the vaginal microbiota, demonstrate the diagnostic potential of metatranscriptomic data, and reveal strategies for the management of these ecosystems.

ABSTRACT Important questions remain on how hormonal contraceptives alter the local immune environment and the microbiota in the female genital tract and how such effects may impact susceptibility to HIV infection. We leveraged samples from a previously conducted clinical trial of Malawian women with (n = 73) and without (n = 24) HIV infection randomized to depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) or the levonogestrel implant in equal numbers within each group and determined the effects of these hormonal contraceptives (HCs) on the vaginal immune milieu and the composition of the vaginal microbiota. Longitudinal data for soluble immune mediators, measured by multiplex bead arrays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), and vaginal microbiota, assessed by 16S rRNA gene amplicon, were collected prior to and over a period of 180 days post-HC initiation. DMPA and levonogestrel had only minimal effects on the vaginal immune milieu and microbiota. In women with HIV, with the caveat of a small sample size, there was an association between the median log10 change in the interleukin-12 (IL-12)/IL-10 ratio in vaginal fluid at day 180 post-HC compared to baseline when these women were classified as having a community state type (CST) IV vaginal microbiota and were randomized to DMPA. Long-lasting alterations in soluble immune markers or shifts in microbiota composition were not observed. Furthermore, women with HIV did not exhibit increased viral shedding in the genital tract after HC initiation. Consistent with the results of the ECHO (Evidence for Contraceptive Options and HIV Outcomes) trial, our data imply that the progestin-based HC DMPA and levonorgestrel are associated with minimal risk for women with HIV. (This study has been registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under registration no. NCT02103660). IMPORTANCE The results of the Evidence for Contraceptive Options and HIV Outcomes (ECHO) trial, the first large randomized controlled clinical trial comparing the HIV acquisition risk of women receiving DMPA, the levonorgestrel (LNG) implant, or the copper intrauterine device (IUD), did not reveal an increased risk of HIV acquisition for women on any of these three contraceptives. Our study results confirm that the two different progestin-based hormonal contraceptives DMPA and levonogestrel will not increase the risk for HIV infection. Furthermore, DMPA and levonogestrel have only minimal effects on the immune milieu and the microbiota in the vaginal tract, attesting to the safety of these hormonal contraceptives.

Summary: Background: Bacterial vaginosis (BV), a condition in which vaginal Lactobacillus spp. are in low abundance, is associated with vulvovaginal symptoms, obstetric outcomes and urogenital infections. Recurrent BV is difficult to manage, and emerging data indicate a reduced risk of BV with the use of hormonal contraception (HC). Despite widespread use, little longitudinal data is available on whether, and in what timeframe, combined oral contraceptive pills (COCs) may act to affect vaginal microbiota stability and Lactobacillus dominance. Methods: We compared the vaginal microbiota of reproductive-age cisgender women during intervals on combined estrogen and progestin COCs with non-use intervals in a 2-year observational study. Vaginal microbiota were characterized by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Findings: COC users were more likely to have Lactobacillus-dominated microbiota and more stable microbiota over time. Stability increased and then plateaued four weeks after COC initiation. The associations between COCs and Lactobacillus spp. dominance, and microbiota stability, were statistically significant for White, but not African American women; however sample size was limited for African American participants. Findings were similar for other forms of HC and when excluding samples collected during menses. Interpretation: Our study provides a methodologic framework to evaluate observational longitudinal microbiota data with exposure crossovers. We found COCs are associated with vaginal microbiota stability and a Lactobacillus-dominated state. COCs appear to impact stability within a month of initiation. Our findings have clinical implications for how soon benefits can be expected in (at least White) patients initiating COCs, and support the need for larger prospective trials to verify our results in ethnically diverse populations. Funding: R01-AI089878.

A picturebook as an intersemiotic translation of a source text involves a complex process of negotiating and generating meaning by interpretation, selection and mediation. When there is a considerable time gap between the first publication of the source text and its translation into a new visual modality, additional concerns appear that further complicate the process. To what extent is modernization recommended or needed? How does the unfolding of social practices and historical change affect the generation of meanings? What are the illustrator’s loyalties? The dynamic development of multimodal (polysemiotic) texts leads to the reinterpretation and expansion of Jakobson’s classic category of intersemiotic translation. It is used in the study of visual literature, which raises methodological questions as to whether book illustrating is a translational activity. Today intersemiotic translation seems much closer to adaptation or “resemiotization” (O’Halloran et al. 2016) than to interlingual translation proper. Thus the study of discrepancies, shifts and changes, rather than the pursuit of equivalence, may offer new insights. A case in point is the artistic picturebook Jak ciężko być królem [How Hard It Is to Be a King] (2018) by Iwona Chmielewska, who provides a contemporary visual interpretation of the almost century-old King Matt the First (Król Maciuś Pierwszy) (1923). Written by a Polish-Jewish pedagogue, educator and writer, Janusz Korczak’s poignant and multilayered novel about a child king is a recognizable children’s classic with four English translations available. Drawing on desrciptive translation studies, the aim of the article is to analyze the picturebook at hand as an intersemiotic translation, mapped against the existing translation series. What are its translational and pictorial dominant features? What characterizes the artist’s multimodal strategies in representing the source text? How is the unsettling or ambiguous content mediated? Last but not least, the articles focuses on interdiscursivity to inquire how the societal and institutional context as well as the discourse of memory surrounding Janusz Korczak’s death in the Holocaust affect the meaning and where and how they ‘place’ the author and his child hero.

This qualitative evaluation explored how female undergraduate students developed an understanding of themselves and the broader world as a result of an adventure and service learning experience in Tanzania, Africa. The project built upon theoretical frameworks regarding meaningful learning--active, constructive, intentional, and authentic--and applied activity theory as a framework for interpreting outcomes. The study included multi-faceted examination of student perceptions of the effects of the year-long experience that culminated in a ten day trip to Tanzania, including a climb to the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro. Students' reflections on the impacts of the trip focused on wanting, doing, reflecting, and relating. Thus, the experience catalyzed change in students' understanding of the world that strongly indicates a meaningful learning experience.

ABSTRACT “Leaky gut,” or high intestinal barrier permeability, is common in preterm newborns. The role of the microbiota in this process remains largely uncharacterized. We employed both short- and long-read sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and metagenomes to characterize the intestinal microbiome of a longitudinal cohort of 113 preterm infants born between 240/7 and 326/7 weeks of gestation. Enabled by enhanced taxonomic resolution, we found that a significantly increased abundance of Bifidobacterium breve and a diet rich in mother’s breastmilk were associated with intestinal barrier maturation during the first week of life. We combined these factors using genome-resolved metagenomics and identified a highly specialized genetic capability of the Bifidobacterium strains to assimilate human milk oligosaccharides and host-derived glycoproteins. Our study proposes mechanistic roles of breastmilk feeding and intestinal microbial colonization in postnatal intestinal barrier maturation; these observations are critical toward advancing therapeutics to prevent and treat hyperpermeable gut-associated conditions, including necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). IMPORTANCE Despite improvements in neonatal intensive care, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. “Leaky gut,” or intestinal barrier immaturity with elevated intestinal permeability, is the proximate cause of susceptibility to NEC. Early detection and intervention to prevent leaky gut in “at-risk” preterm neonates are critical for decreasing the risk of potentially life-threatening complications like NEC. However, the complex interactions between the developing gut microbial community, nutrition, and intestinal barrier function remain largely uncharacterized. In this study, we reveal the critical role of a sufficient breastmilk feeding volume and the specialized carbohydrate metabolism capability of Bifidobacterium in the coordinated postnatal improvement of the intestinal barrier. Determining the clinical and microbial biomarkers that drive the intestinal developmental disparity will inform early detection and novel therapeutic strategies to promote appropriate intestinal barrier maturation and prevent NEC and other adverse health conditions in preterm infants.

BackgroundA relationship between the vaginal microbiota and tenofovir (TFV) concentrations and activity after topical administration has been previously reported.ObjectiveCONRAD A15-138 was a randomized, placebo-controlled Phase I study aimed at characterizing the safety, pharmacokinetics (PK), and pharmacodynamics (PD) of TFV and levonorgestrel (LNG) administered through a vaginal ring (IVR) for 90 days. Herein, we describe changes from baseline in the vaginal microbiota with IVR use and the impact of the vaginal microbiota on mucosal TFV PK.MethodsThe study screened 68 participants and randomized 47 (37 TFV/LNG, 10 placebo), assessing the vaginal microbiota by sequencing the V3–V4 regions of 16S rRNA genes prior to IVR insertion and monthly for 3 months. Concentrations of TFV in vaginal fluid (VF), and TFV and TFV-diphosphate (TFV-DP) in vaginal tissue, and modeled PD against HIV-1 in vitro were measured before and after treatment.ResultsThere were no clinically significant changes in relative abundance of vaginal bacterial phylotypes from pre-insertion baseline at any month among active and placebo IVR users. There were no significant changes in community state type (CST) with IVR use. Participants with diverse, anaerobic CST IVA/B microbiota had higher in vivo release of TFV from the IVR compared to women with Lactobacillus-dominated (LbD) microbiota, who had expected in vivo TFV release rates. Median VF TFV concentrations were significantly higher among women with CST IVA/B microbiota in months 1 (3,135 ng/mg VF) and 2 (3,800 ng/mg). Women with LbD microbiota had significantly higher median VF TFV concentration (1,423 ng/mg) and median TFV (103 ng/mg) and TFV-DP (5,877 fmol/mg) tissue concentrations versus women with CST IVA/B microbiota at month 3. All women demonstrated a significant increase from pre-insertion baseline of in vitro HIV-1 inhibition by VF (p values

Središnja tema ovoga rada jest grčki pjesnik Arhestrat iz Gele (4. st. pr. Kr.) i njegova gastronomska pjesma u heksametrima, koja nam je ostala fragmentarno sačuvana u Atenejevom djelu Gozba sofista. S namjerom da se približi književni kontekst u kojem je pjesma nastala, u radu se daje kratak pregled motiva hrane u grčkoj književnosti u razdoblju do Arhestratovog vremena te se navode dodirne točke s nekim drugim vrstama književnosti, primjerice epskom parodijom i didaktičnom poezijom. Središnji dio rada sačinjava osvrt na sadržaj očuvanih fragmenata. Arhestrat u svojim stihovima pojedinu vrstu hrane uglavnom obrađuje na sličan način: govori gdje i u koje doba godine je najbolje nabaviti određenu namirnicu, ističe njezina posebna svojstva te daje upute za pripravu. Ovaj karakterističan obrazac kao i još neki motivi koji se provlače kroz pjesmu ilustrirani su na primjeru nekoliko fragmenata, koji se donose na jeziku izvornika i u proznom prijevodu. U završnom dijelu rada nalazi se sažet prikaz recepcije Arhestratove pjesme u antici: dok su neki bili zgroženi njezinom prizemnom temom i promicanjem bestidnog uživanja u površnim užicima, drugi su je s oduševljenjem hvalili, a imamo i svjedočanstva o tome da se često citirala na gozbama.

Sequence analyses and subtyping of Bacillus anthracis strains from Georgia reveal a single distinct lineage (Aust94) that is ecologically established. Phylogeographic analysis and comparisons to a global collection reveals a clade that is mostly restricted to Georgia. Within this clade, many groups are found around the country, however at least one subclade is only found in the eastern part. This pattern suggests that dispersal into and out of Georgia has been rare and despite historical dispersion within the country, for at least for one lineage, current spread is limited.

Here, Elovitz et al. investigate associations between cervicovaginal microbiota (CVM) and spontaneous preterm birth (sPTB) in a large cohort of African American and non-African American women, and find that CVM and local immune response early in pregnancy are associated with sPTB in an ethnicity-dependent manner.

Aims: The restoration of coronary circulation plays a crucial role in treating ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), however successful reperfusion with primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PPCI) may induce life-threatening arrhythmias. The relation between myocardial electrical instability, as a background factor in reperfusion arrhythmia, and magnesium administered periprocedurally is still questionable. Several randomized clinical trials have been conducted predominantly in the thrombolysis era. Due to the contradictory results of these studies, there is little evidence of the potential preventive effect of magnesium on reperfusion arrhythmias. The aim of our study is to review and meta-analytically analyze data from all studies published so far in the PPCI era, comparing STEMI patients who have undergone primary PCI and received either magnesium or a placebo before the reperfusion procedure.Methods and Results: Our meta-analysis follows the points in the PRISMA protocol and, meets all of their criteria. We conducted a search in five scientific databases using the following keyword combination: (myocardial infarction OR myocardial injury OR acute coronary syndrome OR acs OR stemi) AND magnesium. The 7,295 collected publications were filtered with the Endnote program by title, abstract and full-text based on predefined criteria. A statistical analysis was performed on three randomized-controlled trials using three common parameters, involving 336 patients Trial sequential analysis (TSA) was applied to assess the risk of random error associated with sparse data and multiple testing which can affect cumulative meta-analysis. The incidence of ventricular tachycardias (VTs) was not significantly increased in the non-magnesium control group. (OR: 1.36; CI: 0.619; −2.986, P = 0.263). For the ejection fraction (EF), a non-significant decrease was observed in the magnesium group by weighted mean difference calculation. (WMD: 7.262, 95% CI: −0.238; 0.053; P = 0.057). There was significant decrease in the infarct zone wall motion index (IZWMSI) in the magnesium treatment group. (WMD: 0.384, 95% CI: −0.042; 0.811, P = 0.015). Based on the TSA assessments, the results of all parameters are not significant, objectively demonstrating the lack of reasonable data pertaining to our question.Conclusions: The preventive effect of magnesium on reperfusion arrhythmia associated with primary PCI can still be considered contradictory based on previous studies. In our study, we found, that magnesium is ineffective with a very weak evidence, due to the small number of patients and the biases of the included studies, and a well-designed clinical trial is needed in this area, based on the TSA.

BackgroundUnderstanding the normal temporal variation in the human microbiome is critical to developing treatments for putative microbiome-related afflictions such as obesity, Crohn’s disease, inflammatory bowel disease and malnutrition. Sequencing and computational technologies, however, have been a limiting factor in performing dense time series analysis of the human microbiome. Here, we present the largest human microbiota time series analysis to date, covering two individuals at four body sites over 396 timepoints.ResultsWe find that despite stable differences between body sites and individuals, there is pronounced variability in an individual’s microbiota across months, weeks and even days. Additionally, only a small fraction of the total taxa found within a single body site appear to be present across all time points, suggesting that no core temporal microbiome exists at high abundance (although some microbes may be present but drop below the detection threshold). Many more taxa appear to be persistent but non-permanent community members.ConclusionsDNA sequencing and computational advances described here provide the ability to go beyond infrequent snapshots of our human-associated microbial ecology to high-resolution assessments of temporal variations over protracted periods, within and between body habitats and individuals. This capacity will allow us to define normal variation and pathologic states, and assess responses to therapeutic interventions.

Previous studies have described bacterial vaginosis (BV) as associated with increased cell-shedding from the cervicovaginal epithelium. Cell-shedding in excess of cell-proliferation is thought to decrease epithelial barrier function and increase susceptibility to infection. This study evaluated the number of shed cells in mid-vaginal smears from women with a diagnosis of symptomatic BV (sBV, n = 17), asymptomatic BV (aBV, n = 71), or no BV (n = 104) by Amsel criteria. The sBV smears contained significantly more shed cells (median 158/100X field) than no BV smears (median 91/100X field), p = 7.2e−9. However, we observed that aBV smears contained significantly fewer shed cells (median 35/100X field) than no BV smears, p = 22.0e−16. The sizes of cell-aggregates (cells shed in sometimes multilayered sections with intact cell-cell attachments) followed the same pattern. Cell-aggregates in sBV smears were significantly larger (median ~220,000 μm2) than those in no BV smears (median ~50,000 μm2), p = 1.8e−6, but cell-aggregates in aBV smears were significantly smaller (median ~7,000 μm2) than those in no BV smears, p = 0.0028. We also compared the superficial cell index (SCI), a measure of cervicovaginal epithelial cell maturity, in no BV and aBV smears with relatively low numbers of shed cells (≤50/100X field). The SCI of no BV smears was significantly higher (median 0.86) than that of aBV smears (median 0.35), p = 4.3e−98, suggesting a depletion of mature cells with exposure and shedding of underlying immature cells in aBV with low number of shed cells. These results indicate that aBV may contribute disproportionately to the increased susceptibility to reproductive tract infections associated with BV. Our findings remained true when considering only those smears in which the microbiota comprised a diverse set of strict and facultative anaerobic bacteria [Community State Type IV (n = 162)], thus excluding those dominated by Lactobacillus spp. This is consistent with our developing hypothesis that high-shedding sBV and low-shedding aBV could be temporally separated phases of the same condition, rather than two separate forms of BV. These findings might inform future work on clinical management of symptomatic and asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis.

Abstract Hepadnaviruses, including human hepatitis B virus (HBV), replicate their tiny DNA genomes by protein-primed reverse transcription of a pregenomic (pg) RNA. Replication initiation as well as pgRNA encapsidation depend on the interaction of the viral polymerase, P protein, with the ε RNA element, featuring a lower and an upper stem, a central bulge, and an apical loop. The bulge, somehow assisted by the loop, acts as template for a P protein-linked DNA oligo that primes full-length minus-strand DNA synthesis. Phylogenetic conservation and earlier mutational studies suggested the highly based-paired ε structure as crucial for productive interaction with P protein. Using the tractable duck HBV (DHBV) model we here interrogated the entire apical DHBV ε (Dε) half for sequence- and structure-dependent determinants of in vitro priming activity, replication, and, in part, in vivo infectivity. This revealed single-strandedness of the bulge, a following G residue plus the loop subsequence GUUGU as the few key determinants for priming and initiation site selection; unexpectedly, they functioned independently of a specific structure context. These data provide new mechanistic insights into avihepadnaviral replication initiation, and they imply a new concept towards a feasible in vitro priming system for human HBV.

ABSTRACT The mechanism(s) by which Lactobacillus-dominated cervicovaginal microbiota provide a barrier to Chlamydia trachomatis infection remain(s) unknown. Here we evaluate the impact of different Lactobacillus spp. identified via culture-independent metataxonomic analysis of C. trachomatis-infected women on C. trachomatis infection in a three-dimensional (3D) cervical epithelium model. Lactobacillus spp. that specifically produce d(−) lactic acid were associated with long-term protection against C. trachomatis infection, consistent with reduced protection associated with Lactobacillus iners, which does not produce this isoform, and with decreased epithelial cell proliferation, consistent with the observed prolonged protective effect. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that epigenetic modifications involving histone deacetylase-controlled pathways are integral to the cross talk between host and microbiota. These results highlight a fundamental mechanism whereby the cervicovaginal microbiota modulates host functions to protect against C. trachomatis infection. IMPORTANCE The vaginal microbiota is believed to protect women against Chlamydia trachomatis, the etiologic agent of the most prevalent sexually transmitted infection (STI) in developed countries. The mechanism underlying this protection has remained elusive. Here, we reveal the comprehensive strategy by which the cervicovaginal microbiota modulates host functions to protect against chlamydial infection, thereby providing a novel conceptual mechanistic understanding. Major implications of this work are that (i) the impact of the vaginal microbiota on the epithelium should be considered in future studies of chlamydial infection and other STIs and (ii) a fundamental understanding of the cervicovaginal microbiota’s role in protection against STIs may enable the development of novel microbiome-based therapeutic strategies to protect women from infection and improve vaginal and cervical health.

ABSTRACT Amplification, sequencing, and analysis of the 16S rRNA gene affords characterization of microbial community composition. As this tool has become more popular and amplicon-sequencing applications have grown in the total number of samples, growth in sample multiplexing is becoming necessary while maintaining high sequence quality and sequencing depth. Here, modifications to the Illumina HiSeq 2500 platform are described which produce greater multiplexing capabilities and 300-bp paired-end reads of higher quality than those produced by the current Illumina MiSeq platform. To improve the feasibility and flexibility of this method, a 2-step PCR amplification protocol is also described that allows for targeting of different amplicon regions, and enhances amplification success from samples with low bacterial bioburden. IMPORTANCE Amplicon sequencing has become a popular and widespread tool for surveying microbial communities. Lower overall costs associated with high-throughput sequencing have made it a widely adopted approach, especially for projects that necessitate sample multiplexing to eliminate batch effect and reduced time to acquire data. The method for amplicon sequencing on the Illumina HiSeq 2500 platform described here provides improved multiplexing capabilities while simultaneously producing greater quality sequence data and lower per-sample cost relative to those of the Illumina MiSeq platform without sacrificing amplicon length. To make this method more flexible for various amplicon-targeted regions as well as improve amplification from low-biomass samples, we also present and validate a 2-step PCR library preparation method.

Recent data support that the vaginal microbiota may alter mucosal pharmacokinetics (PK) of topically delivered microbicides. Our team developed an intravaginal ring (IVR) that delivers tenofovir (TFV) (8-10 mg/day) alone or with levonorgestrel (LNG) (20 ug/day). We evaluated the effect of IVRs on the vaginal microbiota, and describe how the vaginal microbiota impacts mucosal PK of TFV. CONRAD A13-128 was a randomized, placebo controlled phase I study. We randomized 51 women to TFV, TFV/LNG or placebo IVR. We assessed the vaginal microbiota by sequencing the V3-V4 regions of 16S rRNA genes prior to IVR insertion and after approximately 15 days of use. We measured the concentration of TFV in the cervicovaginal (CV) aspirate, and TFV and TFV-diphosphate (TFV-DP) in vaginal tissue at the end of IVR use. The change in relative or absolute abundance of vaginal bacterial phylotypes was similar among active and placebo IVR users (all q values >0.13). TFV concentrations in CV aspirate and vaginal tissue, and TFV-DP concentrations in vaginal tissue were not significantly different among users with community state type (CST) 4 versus those with Lactobacillus dominated microbiota (all p values >0.07). The proportions of participants with CV aspirate concentrations of TFV >200,000 ng/mL and those with tissue TFV-DP concentrations >1,000 fmol/mg were similar among women with anaerobe versus Lactobacillus dominated microbiota (p = 0.43, 0.95 respectively). There were no significant correlations between the CV aspirate concentration of TFV and the relative abundances of Gardnerella vaginalis or Prevotella species. Tissue concentrations of TFV-DP did not correlate with any the relative abundances of any species, including Gardnerella vaginalis. In conclusion, active IVRs did not differ from the placebo IVR on the effect on the vaginal microbiota. Local TFV and TFV-DP concentrations were high and similar among IVR users with Lactobacillus dominated microbiota versus CST IV vaginal microbiota. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02235662.

Intestinal barrier immaturity, or “leaky gut,” is the proximate cause of susceptibility to necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm neonates. However, the impact of intestinal microbiota development on intestinal mucosal barrier maturation has not been evaluated in this population. In this study, we investigated a longitudinally sampled cohort of 38 preterm infants < 33 weeks gestation monitored for intestinal permeability (IP) and fecal microbiota during the first 2 weeks of life. Rapid decrease in IP indicating intestinal barrier function maturation correlated with significant increase in community diversity. In particular, members of the Clostridiales and Bifidobacterium were highly transcriptionally active, and progressively increasing abundance in Clostridiales was significantly associated with decreased intestinal permeability. Further, neonatal factors previously identified to promote intestinal barrier maturation, including early exclusive breastmilk feeding and shorter duration antibiotic exposure, associate with the early colonization of the intestinal microbiota by members of the Clostridiales, which altogether are associated with improved intestinal barrier function in preterm infants.

Paradoxes of Professionalization: Translation Standards – EN 15038 and EN ISO 17100 – From the Perspective of Translator Education Taking the perspective of translator training, the article discusses the significance of translation standards understood as codified documents issued by normalization bodies, focusing on two standards that go beyond local or national settings such as EN 15038 and EN ISO 17100. The emergence of translation standards is situated in a broad context of subject literature on norms in translation. Aspects of standards that have a direct or possible bearing on translator education are discussed. It seems that standards do not necessarily contribute to the present state of the art in translator education research. However, they may enhance a positive perception of translation industry and translators as professionals. Yet, paradoxically, the question remains open whether they indeed contribute to translator empowerment.

Translating a fairy tale. Audiovisual translation for children in the Polish media polisystem Children’s television is a specialized and dynamically evolving segment of the media market. By following the tenets of the polysystem theory and transferring them to the field of audiovisual translation, the article seeks to analyze the status of translated material in children’s channels in Poland. The analysis was prompted by two important events concerning the Polish media polisystem. In 2013 a popular children’s programme, wieczorynka, aired for over fifty years by the public television was abolished. In the same year, the largest private children’s channel, MiniMini+, celebrated its 10th anniversary. Focusing on the content of MiniMini+, the article shows a domination of translated animations over local productions, global circulation of animations and their tendency to evolve into total products. Implications of these phenomena for translation are exemplified by the series ‘My Little Pony’.

Sequence analyses and subtyping of Bacillus anthracis strains from Georgia reveal a single distinct lineage (Aust94) that is ecologically established. Phylogeographic analysis and comparisons to a global collection reveals a clade that is mostly restricted to Georgia. Within this clade, many groups are found around the country, however at least one subclade is only found in the eastern part. This pattern suggests that dispersal into and out of Georgia has been rare and despite historical dispersion within the country, for at least for one lineage, current spread is limited.

• After implementation of our CardioOB program, overall patient follow-up was relatively low. • We identified several sociodemographic factors and pregnancy characteristics associated with CardioOB follow-up. • These data may be useful in developing strategies aimed to increase follow-up and provide care for patients in this select population. Given the association of adverse pregnancy outcomes with risk of developing cardiovascular disease and cardiac events later in life, our institution launched a CardioObstetrics (CardioOB) program aimed to provide long-term care for patients at risk. We performed a retrospective cohort study in order to investigate which patient characteristics were associated with CardioOB follow-up following the inception of the program. We identified several sociodemographic factors and pregnancy characteristics such as increased maternal age, non-English language preferred, married marital status, referral during the antepartum period, and discharged with antihypertensive medications after delivery associated with a higher likelihood of CardioOB follow-up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Translation as provision of translation services? At the crossroads between enhancing professional realism and serving the needs of the industry in translator education The paper seeks to analyze the current discourse in the field of translator training, developing in a triad of academic discussion, impact of translation standards and general educational debate. The discourse is discussed from chosen perspectives: empirical research on market requirements concerning translators (Optimale), the EN 15038:2006 translation standard and the EMT competence model. The paper stresses the importance of professional realism in translator education yet argues with ascribing the “translation service provision” competence a superordinate role. The arguments advocating a broader approach, taking into account transferable skills, are illustrated with results of empirical research on the perception of the EMT competence model and an analysis of recruitment competitions for translators in the EU institutions.

ABSTRACT Vaginal HIV microbicides offer great promise in preventing HIV transmission, but failures of phase 3 clinical trials, in which microbicide-treated subjects had an increased risk of HIV transmission, raised concerns about endpoints used to evaluate microbicide safety. A possible explanation for the increased transmission risk is that the agents shifted the vaginal bacterial community, resulting in loss of natural protection and enhanced HIV transmission susceptibility. We characterized vaginal microbiota, using pyrosequencing of bar-coded 16S rRNA gene fragments, in samples from 35 healthy, sexually abstinent female volunteer subjects (ages 18 to 50 years) with regular menses in a repeat phase 1 study of twice-daily application over 13.5 days of 1 of 3 gel products: a hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC)-based “universal” placebo (10 subjects), 6% cellulose sulfate (CS; 13 subjects), and 4% nonoxynol-9 (N-9; 12 subjects). We used mixed effects models inferred using Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo methods, which showed that treatment with active agents shifted the microbiota toward a community type lacking significant numbers of Lactobacillus spp. and dominated by strict anaerobes. This state of the vaginal microbiota was associated with a low or intermediate Nugent score and was not identical to bacterial vaginosis, an HIV transmission risk factor. The placebo arm contained a higher proportion of communities dominated by Lactobacillus spp., particularly L. crispatus, throughout treatment. The data suggest that molecular evaluation of microbicide effects on vaginal microbiota may be a critical endpoint that should be incorporated in early clinical assessment of microbicide candidates. IMPORTANCE Despite large prevention efforts, HIV transmission and acquisition rates remain unacceptably high. In developing countries, transmission mainly occurs through heterosexual intercourse, where women are significantly more vulnerable to infection than men. Vaginal microbicides are considered to be one of the most promising female-controlled products, in that women themselves insert the microbicides into the vagina to prevent HIV transmission during sexual intercourse. The failure of several microbicides in clinical trials has raised questions concerning the low in vivo efficacy of such anti-HIV molecules. This study was designed to gain insights into the failures of two microbicides by testing the hypothesis that the microbicides negatively affect a critical line of defense against HIV, the vaginal microbiota. The results suggest that in the early assessment of candidate microbicides, culture-independent evaluation of their effect on the vaginal microbiota should be considered and may constitute a critical endpoint.

Celiac disease (CD) is a unique autoimmune disorder in which the genetic factors (DQ2/DQ8) and the environmental trigger (gluten) are known and necessary but not sufficient for its development. Other environmental components contributing to CD are poorly understood. Studies suggest that aspects of gluten intake might influence the risk of CD occurrence and timing of its onset, i.e., the amount and quality of ingested gluten, together with the pattern of infant feeding and the age at which gluten is introduced in the diet. In this study, we hypothesize that the intestinal microbiota as a whole rather than specific infections dictates the switch from tolerance to immune response in genetically susceptible individuals. Using a sample of infants genetically at risk of CD, we characterized the longitudinal changes in the microbial communities that colonize infants from birth to 24 months and the impact of two patterns of gluten introduction (early vs. late) on the gut microbiota and metabolome, and the switch from gluten tolerance to immune response, including onset of CD autoimmunity. We show that infants genetically susceptible to CD who are exposed to gluten early mount an immune response against gluten and develop CD autoimmunity more frequently than at-risk infants in which gluten exposure is delayed until 12 months of age. The data, while derived from a relatively small number of subjects, suggest differences between the developing microbiota of infants with genetic predisposition for CD and the microbiota from infants with a non-selected genetic background, with an overall lack of bacteria of the phylum Bacteriodetes along with a high abundance of Firmicutes and microbiota that do not resemble that of adults even at 2 years of age. Furthermore, metabolomics analysis reveals potential biomarkers for the prediction of CD. This study constitutes a definite proof-of-principle that these combined genomic and metabolomic approaches will be key to deciphering the role of the gut microbiota on CD onset.

The effect of storage conditions on the microbiome and metabolite composition of human biological samples has not been thoroughly investigated as a potential source of bias. We evaluated the effect of two common storage conditions used in clinical trials on the bacterial and metabolite composition of the vaginal microbiota using pyrosequencing of barcoded 16S rRNA gene sequencing and (1)H-NMR analyses.Eight women were enrolled and four mid-vaginal swabs were collected by a physician from each woman. The samples were either processed immediately, stored at -80°C for 4 weeks or at -20°C for 1 week followed by transfer to -80°C for another 4 weeks prior to analysis. Statistical methods, including Kolmogorovo-Smirnov and Wilcoxon tests, were performed to evaluate the differences in vaginal bacterial community composition and metabolites between samples stored under different conditions. The results showed that there were no significant differences between samples processed immediately after collection or stored for varying durations. (1)H-NMR analysis of the small molecule metabolites in vaginal secretions indicated that high levels of lactic acid were associated with Lactobacillus-dominated communities. Relative abundance of lactic acid did not appear to correlate with relative abundance of individual Lactobacillus sp. in this limited sample, although lower levels of lactic acid were observed when L. gasseri was dominant, indicating differences in metabolic output of seemingly similar communities.These findings benefit large-scale, field-based microbiome and metabolomic studies of the vaginal microbiota.

Few microbial functions have been compared to a comprehensive survey of the human fecal microbiome. We evaluated determinants of fecal microbial β-glucuronidase and β-glucosidase activities, focusing especially on associations with microbial alpha and beta diversity and taxonomy. We enrolled 51 healthy volunteers (26 female, mean age 39) who provided questionnaire data and multiple aliquots of a stool, from which proteins were extracted to quantify β-glucuronidase and β-glucosidase activities, and DNA was extracted to amplify and pyrosequence 16S rRNA gene sequences to classify and quantify microbiome diversity and taxonomy. Fecal β-glucuronidase was elevated with weight loss of at least 5 lb. (P = 0.03), whereas β-glucosidase was marginally reduced in the four vegetarians (P = 0.06). Both enzymes were correlated directly with microbiome richness and alpha diversity measures, directly with the abundance of four Firmicutes Clostridia genera, and inversely with the abundance of two other genera (Firmicutes Lactobacillales Streptococcus and Bacteroidetes Rikenellaceae Alistipes) (all P = 0.05-0.0001). Beta diversity reflected the taxonomic associations. These observations suggest that these enzymatic functions are performed by particular taxa and that diversity indices may serve as surrogates of bacterial functions. Independent validation and deeper understanding of these associations are needed, particularly to characterize functions and pathways that may be amenable to manipulation.

Data derived from molecular microbiological investigations of the human vagina have led to the discovery of resident bacterial communities that exhibit marked differences in terms of species composition. All undergo dynamic changes that are likely due to intrinsic host and behavioral factors. Similar types of bacteria have been found in both amniotic fluid and the vagina, suggesting a potential route of colonization. Given that not all of the species involved in intrauterine infections are readily cultivated, it is important that culture-independent methods of analysis must be used to understand the etiology of these infections. Further research is needed to establish whether an ascending pathway from the vagina to the amniotic cavity enables the development of intrauterine infections.

The paper discusses the influence of learning on evolutionary processes. In biological sciences it is a well-known fact that the rate of evolution can be effected by learning and the same phenomena can also be observed in artificial evolutionary systems, however, their nature is still not sufficiently well understood. In the paper the influence of constant learning on the rate of evolution is examined. The constant learning is a kind of learning during which the genotype of the individual being taught is moved toward the global optimum over a constant value. If the fitness function is monotonic, it can be concluded from the mathematical theory that such kind of learning should decelerate evolution. However, this fact is highly counterintuitive and for this reason it should be proved by numerical experiments. In the article the results of numerical simulations are presented. They prove that evolution is indeed decelerated by learning in case of the sigmoid fitness function. Moreover, two cases of constant learning were examined in the paper. These are the positive and negative constant learning. It was demonstrated that in the case of the negative constant learning the evolution was decelerated to a larger extent than in the case of the positive constant learning. The obtained results can help explain certain phenomena concerning the impact of learning on the evolution both in natural and artificial evolutionary systems.

The paper concerns machine translation systems that form a discipline of computer science and are aimed at writing computer programs that are able to translate text between natural languages. In the paper the author argues that it is not possible to build a machine translation system that would be able to translate any kind of documents with a sufficiently high quality. Instead, the author proposes a specialized machine translation system the aim of which is to translate financial reports concerning the global currency exchange market – forex. For the purpose of building the above mentioned system, the author has proposed his own machine translation method of translation patterns. The translation patterns allow transferring the translation process from the level of single words to the level of words chunks. The translation patterns play a very important role in the case of such an inflectional language as Polish because they make it possible to choose the correct form of Polish translation of foreign phrases depending whether they perform the verb or object function in the sentence. The high quality of the specialized machine translation system developed by the author was proved with many experiments the results of which are demonstrated in the paper. The quality of translation is so high that the Polish translations of English reports from the global currency exchange market can be published on Web pages without any additional changes. Thus, it is possible to totally eliminate the human translator from the process of translation of texts which are highly stereotypical and oriented to a selected and narrow domain.