Search

Abstract Background The potential ecosystem collapse of forests in Mediterranean-type ecosystems (MTEs) by unprecedented droughts is worrisome due to the impacts on its exceptional biodiversity and human well-being. However, research integrating the impacts of global change drivers, forest resilience and the challenges facing human-nature relationships is still scarce. Methods and results Using the central Chile megadrought and recently massive forest browning event as a model scenario, we identified, through a scientific literature review and an interdisciplinary scientific workshop, the research priorities and questions to address for MTEs in a context of global change. Our results highlighted knowledge gaps that need to be covered, particularly in social and environmental sciences, with an emphasis on soil science. Research priorities must focus on (1) the understanding of interactive effects of global and local anthropogenic drivers on MTEs and (2) the evaluation of the potential impacts of MTEs collapse on human well-being and ecosystem functioning. Conclusions We highlight the need for a collaborative approach involving scientists, landowners, managers/administrators, and policymakers to apply adaptive forest management against the current socio-environmental challenges under a global change context.

Abstract The structuring of plant assemblages along environmental gradients is typically explained by shifts from competition (limiting similarity) to environmental filtering as the environment becomes more stressful. However, facilitation, weaker-competitor exclusion, environmental heterogeneity, and the colonization-competition tradeoff can also structure plant assemblages along gradients. These assembly processes act on different plant traits and organs, and their prevalence varies with respect to the spatial scale. Using patterns of functional diversity, coupled with patterns of species association at two spatial scales, here we discern the assembly processes that structure shrub communities in four localities along an aridity gradient of the Atacama Desert. At each site, we calculated functional dispersion indexes for above- and below-ground traits, and patterns of species association at a patch and neighborhood scale. Our results revealed that at the patch scale in intermediate levels of aridity, the dominant assembly process was within-site environmental heterogeneity. At the neighborhood scale, communities are assembled mainly through random processes. Nonetheless, in some communities, the dominant assembly process was competition via limiting similarity or exclusion of the weaker competitor, and these did not change along the gradient. Together, these results reveal that environmental heterogeneity and competition are the main drivers of plant community assembly in a hyper-arid environment.

Glaciers in the dry Chilean Andes provide important ecological services, yet their mass balance response to past and ongoing climate change has been little studied. This study examines the recent (2002–2015), historical (1955–2005), and past (5000 m), using a combination of glaciological, geodetic, and ice core observations. Mass balance has been predominantly negative since 2002. Analysis of mass balance and meteorological data since 2002 suggests that mass balance is currently mostly sensitive to precipitation variations, while low temperatures, aridity and high solar radiation and wind speeds cause large sublimation losses and limited melting. Mass balance reconstructed by geodetic methods shows that Guanaco Glacier has been losing mass since at least 1955, and that mass loss has increased over time until present. An ice core recovered from the deepest part of the glacier in 2008 revealed that the glacier is cold-based with a −5.5°C basal temperature and a warm reversal of the temperature profile above 60-m depth attributed to the recent atmospheric warming trend. Detailed stratigraphic and stable isotope analyses of the upper 20 m of the core revealed seasonal cycles in the δ18O and δ2H records with periods varying between 0.5 and 3 m. w.e. a–1. Deuterium excess values larger than 10‰ suggest limited post-depositional sublimation, while the presence of numerous refrozen ice layers indicate significant summer melt. Tritium concentration in the upper 20 m of the core was very low, while 210Pb was undetected, indicating that the glacier surface in 2008 was at least 100 years old. Taken together, these results suggest that Guanaco Glacier formed under drastically different climate conditions than today, with humid conditions causing high accumulation rates, reduced sublimation and increased melting. Reconstruction of mass balance based on correlations with precipitation and streamflow records show periods of sustained mass gain in the early 20th century and the 1980s, separated by periods of mass loss. The southern migration of the South Pacific Subtropical High over the course of the 20th and 21st centuries is proposed as the main mechanism explaining the progressive precipitation starvation of glaciers in this area.

Abstract Background Human population growth since the mid-1900s has been accompanied by an unsustainable use of natural resources and a corresponding impact on terrestrial and marine biota. In response, most states have established protected areas as tools to decrease biodiversity loss, being Chile one of the signatories of international conservation agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the 2010 Aichi Targets. This study reviews the Chilean protected areas that have been created to date, with an emphasis on the existence and effectiveness of management plans for all terrestrial and marine protected areas. Effectiveness was individually evaluated using two filters: 1) the age of the management plan and 2) the first four steps of the Protected Areas Management Effectiveness (PAME) methodology recommended by the IUCN. Results We show that 84 out of a total of 145 protected areas (PAs), and only five out of a total of 20 marine protected areas (MPAs), have management plans. Only 12% (N = 16) of PAs are effectively managed; while in the marine realm, no MPA has an effective plan. Conclusions Our results show the lack of both the effectiveness of and updates to the management plans for the vast majority of the national territory and raise the following question: is it sustainable to continue adding protected areas to the national system even though it is clear that the existing support is insufficient to meet the minimum requirements for full implementation?

The Prosopis genus (Mimosoideae, Leguminosae) constitutes an important genetic resource for arid and semiarid environments. Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz is a multipurpose species native to South America, which displays high phenotypic variability. In Chile, this species grows in the semiarid region, along river beds of the transverse valleys. We studied the genetic diversity and population genetic structure of P. chilensis across the three transverse valleys of the Coquimbo Region (29°-32°S) by analysing the genetic diversity of 182 individuals with four nuclear and one chloroplast microsatellite markers. Using a spatial principal component analysis (sPCA), we detected a clear hierarchical genetic structure. This analysis revealed the existence of seven distinct genetic clusters throughout the whole studied region. None of the genetic clusters detected overlapped between valleys. This suggests that the mountain ridges separating the three transverse valleys may have exerted a barrier effect. However, while significant, population differentiation was low and most of the genetic variation was found within clusters. These results suggest that high gene flow might be counteracting and blurring the effects of the structuring factors. This is the first study of genetic population of P. chilensis in Chile and the genetic data obtained may be valuable for the conservation of this vulnerable, multipurpose tree species.

Connectivity between populations plays a key role in the long-term persistence of species in fragmented habitats. This is of particular concern for biodiversity preservation in drylands, since water limited landscapes are typically characterized by little suitable habitat cover, high habitat fragmentation, harsh matrices, and are being rapidly degraded at a global scale. In this study, we modelled landscape connectivity between 11 guanaco Lama guanicoe populations in Chile’s arid Norte Chico, a region that supports the last remnant coastal populations of this emblematic herbivore indigenous to South America. We produced a habitat suitability model to derive a regional surface resistance map, and used circuit theory to map functional connectivity, investigate the relative isolation between populations, and identify those that contribute most to the patch connectivity network. Predicted suitable habitat for L. guanicoe represented about 25% of the study region (i.e., 29,173 km2) and was heterogeneously distributed along a continuous stretch along the Andes, and discontinuous patches along the coast. As a result, we found that high connectivity current flows in the mid and high Andes formed a wide, continuous connectivity corridor, enabling connectivity between all high Andean populations. Coastal populations, in contrast, were more isolated. These groups demonstrate no inter-population connectivity between themselves, only with higher altitude populations, and for two of them, animal movement was linked to the effectiveness of wildlife crossings along the Pan-American highway. Our results indicate that functional connectivity is an issue of concern for L. guanicoe in Chile’s Norte Chico, implying that future conservation and management plans should emphasize strategies aimed at conserving functional connectivity between coastal and Andean populations, as well as the protection of habitat patches likely to act as stepping stones within the connectivity network.

In birds, the environmental variables and intrinsic characteristics of the nest have important fitness consequences through its influence on the selection of nesting sites. However, the extent to which these variables interact with variables that operate at the landscape scale, and whether there is a hierarchy among the different scales that influences nest-site selection, is unknown. This interaction could be crucial in burrowing birds, which depend heavily on the availability of suitable nesting locations. One representative of this group is the burrowing parrot, Cyanoliseus patagonus that breeds on specific ravines and forms large breeding colonies. At a particular site, breeding aggregations require the concentration of adequate environmental elements for cavity nesting, which are provided by within ravine characteristics. Therefore, intrinsic ravine characteristics should be more important in determining nest site selection compared to landscape level characteristics. Here, we assess this hypothesis by comparing the importance of ravine characteristics operating at different scales on nest-site selection and their interrelation with reproductive success. We quantified 12 characteristics of 105 ravines in their reproductive habitat. For each ravine we quantified morphological variables, distance to resources and disturbance as well as nest number and egg production in order to compare selected and non-selected ravines and determine the interrelationship among variables in explaining ravine differences. In addition, the number of nests and egg production for each reproductive ravine was related to ravine characteristics to assess their relation to reproductive success. We found significant differences between non-reproductive and reproductive ravines in both intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics. The multidimensional environmental gradient of variation between ravines, however, shows that differences are mainly related to intrinsic morphological characteristics followed by extrinsic variables associated to human disturbance. Likewise, within reproductive ravines, intrinsic characteristics are more strongly related to the number of nests. The probability of producing eggs, however, was related only to distance to roads and human settlements. Patterns suggest that C. patagonus mainly selects nesting sites based on intrinsic morphological characteristics of ravines. Scale differences in the importance of ravine characteristics could be a consequence of the particular orography of the breeding habitat. The arrangement of resources is associated to the location of the gullies rather than to individual ravines, determining the spatial availability and disposition of resources and disturbances. Thus, nest selection is influenced by intrinsic characteristics that maximize the fitness of individuals. Scaling in nest-selection is discussed under an optimality approach that partitions patch selection based on foraging theory.

La pérdida de la biodiversidad producida por el crecimiento demográfico, la demanda por recursos y la actividad productiva es contradictoria con el reconocimiento de su importancia. En ecosistemas terrestres, el Sistema Nacional de Áreas Protegidas del Estado (SNASPE) contiene cerca del 19 % del territorio de Chile continental; aunque no representa todos los ecosistemas con especies amenazadas, puede ser complementado implementando nuevas áreas protegidas públicas (AP) y privadas (APP). El desarrollo de áreas marinas protegidas (AMP) es incipiente, y algunas iniciativas comparten la responsabilidad de conservación con los usuarios locales. En Chile, un conjunto de reglamentos, normas legales y tratados internacionales promueven distintas oportunidades de conservación en ecosistemas terrestres y marinos costeros, de las cuales emergen nuevos desafíos. Entre estos destacan, estandarizar la clasificación de especies según categorías de conservación en un protocolo internacional y optimizar las metodologías para seleccionar áreas prioritarias, ambos criterios indispensables para decidir qué y dónde conservar. Otro desafío es integrar el valor intrínseco de la biodiversidad con los servicios ecosistémicos que presta para instaurar una cultura participativa. Esto mejoraría la efectividad de las distintas estrategias de protección y uso sustentable de la biodiversidad al incorporar la educación y la participación ciudadana desde una perspectiva biocultural. La educación fomenta la conservación de la naturaleza al hacernos conscientes de nuestro entorno; mientras que la participación involucra a los ciudadanos como un actor más en la toma de decisiones, procurando la aplicación efectiva de las estrategias de conservación de la biodiversidad.Biodiversity loss caused by population growth, the demand of resources and productive activities is inconsistent with the recognition of its importance. In terrestrial ecosystems, the National State System of Protected Areas (SNASPE) contains about 19 % of continental Chile. Although it does not represent all the ecosystems with endangered species, it can be supplemented by implementing new public and private protected areas (PA and PPP, respectively). The development of Marine Protected Areas (AMP) is emerging, and some strategies share conservation responsibility with local stakeholders. In Chile, a set of regulations, laws and international treaties promote different conservation opportunities in land and marine coastal ecosystems. Some of the derived challenges involve standardizing the classification of species in conservation categories according to an international Protocol and optimizing the methodologies for selecting priority conservation areas; both criteria are essential for decision-making in biodiversity conservation. Another challenge is integrating the intrinsic value of biodiversity and the ecosystem services provided for promoting a participatory culture. This would improve the effectiveness of different strategies for the protection and sustainable use of biodiversity, involving education and citizen participation from a bio-cultural perspective. Education promotes nature conservation, as people become aware of their environment. Since participation involves citizens as actors in decision-making, it promotes the effective implementation of strategies for the conservation of biodiversity.

Se evaluó la capacidad estacional de utilizar un evento de precipitación en tres especies arbustivas con diferentes sistemas radiculares (dimórficos: Balbisia peduncularis, Senna cumingii; profundo: Haplopappus parvifolius) en la Quebrada El Romeral, norte-centro de Chile. El sitio posee un clima tipo mediterráneo árido con influencia de neblinas costeras y una precipitación promedio anual de 78 mm en los últimos 30 años. La utilización de precipitación artificial (i.e., 25 mm en otoño, invierno y primavera) por parte de las plantas se estimó por la composición de isótopos de hidrógeno (delta²H) en el agua del xilema y los potenciales hídricos de pre-alba (psipa) antes y después del riego. Los resultados indican que las tres especies utilizan una mezcla de dos fuentes de agua (agua superficial proveniente de las precipitaciones, y en mayor proporción, agua subterránea). A excepción de invierno, sólo las especies de sistemas radiculares dimórficos son capaces de reducir su déficit hídrico después de la aplicación de la precipitación artificial. La reducción en las precipitaciones observada en los últimos 100 años afectaría diferencialmente la productividad de las especies con sistema radicular dimórfico, y en especial al arbusto forrajero Balbisia peduncularis.Seasonal ability to use precipitation by three shrub species with different root systems (dimorphic: Balbisia peduncularis and Senna cummingii; deep: Haplopappus parvifolius) was evaluated in Quebrada El Romeral, north-central Chile. The site has an arid Mediterranean climate with coastal fog influence and an annual mean precipitation of 78 mm during the last 30 years. The use of artificial rain (i.e., 25 mm in fall, winter and spring) by plants was estimated by the hydrogen isotope composition (delta²H) in the xylem water and the pre-dawn water potentials (psipa) before and after watering. The results show that the three species use a mixture of two water sources (shallow water coming from rainfall and a greater proportion of subterranean water). Except in winter, the species with dimorphic roots are able to reduce their water deficits after the artificial watering. The decrease in rainfall observed for the last 100 years would affect the productivity of the species with dimorphic root systems, especially the forage shrub Balbisia peduncularis.

El número de semillas producidas por una planta puede estar limitada por factores ambientales adversos, los cuales también pueden afectar el desarrollo, originando semillas no viables. En la Primera Región de Chile hemos observado que Lycopersicon chilense, una especie de tomate endémica del Desierto de Atacama, presenta una alta producción de frutos y de semillas, sin embargo se observa una escasa regeneración de nuevos individuos. Se plantea que esto se debe a dos factores: (a) las plantas madres, producto de las condiciones adversas donde crecen desarrollan semillas no viables o (b) las semillas son viables pero las condiciones ambientales son desfavorables para la germinación. Se estudió la capacidad germinativa de semillas de Lycopersicon chilense sometidas a distintas temperaturas y concentraciones de manitol y NaCl, provenientes de plantas madres que crecieron con buen abastecimiento hídrico (+H2O) y de otro grupo que creció con un abastecimiento hídrico deficiente (-H2O). El nivel de riego tuvo un efecto sobre el número de semillas germinadas y sobre el tiempo que necesitan las semillas para germinar frente a distintas temperaturas y diferentes potenciales hídricos. Las semillas de plantas -H2O fueron capaces de germinar a potenciales hídricos más negativos y en menor tiempo que las semillas provenientes de plantas +H2O en el caso de manitol. Una relación inversa ocurrió respecto a NaCl, en que un mayor porcentaje de germinación y un menor tiempo de germinación se presentó en las semillas provenientes de plantas +H2O. La germinación de L. chilense disminuye progresivamente a potenciales hídricos menores de -0,5 MPa siendo esta disminución más notoria con NaCl, en ambos casos se observó un retraso en la germinación. El óptimo de temperatura para la germinación se encontró entre los 15 y los 25 °C. Lycopersicon chilense no germinó a temperaturas menores de 8 °C y mayores de 35 °C. Los datos mostraron que las plantas de L. chilense producen semillas viables bajo las condiciones de déficit hídrico estudiadas. Sin embargo, la capacidad de germinar está limitada a un rango estrecho de condiciones ambientales. Se postulan algunas hipótesis para explicar su presencia en ambientes desérticos.The number of seeds produced by a plant can be limited by adverse environmental factors, which can also affect the seed development originating non-viable seeds. In the I Region, Chile we have observed that Lycopersicon chilense, a tomato species endemic to Atacama Desert, has high fruit and seed production, but a low plant recruitment. We hypothesize that this could be due to two factors: (a) mother plants produce non-viable seeds because of the adverse conditions where they grow or (b) seed are viable but the environmental conditions are not suitable for seed germination. We determined the germination capacity of L. chilense seeds, subjected to different temperatures and mannitol and NaCl concentration, from mother plants growing with plenty water supply (+H2O) and other groups growing with water deficit (-H2O). Water supply affected the number of seeds germinated and the time needed by the seeds to germinate under different temperatures and water potential. Seeds from -H2O plants were able to germinate at lower water potentials and in shorter time than seeds from +H2O plants in the case of mannitol. The contrary occurred with NaCl, in which a higher seed germination and shorter time for germination occurred in seeds coming from +H2O plants. Seed germination of L chilense progressively decrease at water potentials lower than -0,5 MPa, being this decrease more evident with NaCl; in both cases there was a germination delay. The optimum temperature for seed germination was between 15 and 25 °C. Seeds of L. chilense did not germinate at temperatures lower than 8 °C or higher than 35 °C. Data show that although L. chilense plants produce viable seeds under the various water conditions studied, the capacity of seeds to germinate is limited to a narrow range of environmental conditions. Some hypotheses are advanced to explain the presence of this species in desert environments

El agua es el factor más importante que afecta a la productividad primaria y la estructura de la vegetación en ecosistemas áridos. Dado que las especies de plantas pueden diferir en sus capacidades de utilizar distintas fuentes de agua, el conocimiento de estos aspectos es fundamental para los planes de conservación, manejo y restauración ecológica. En un estudio realizado en el secano costero del norte-centro de Chile (29" 43' S, 71" 14' O, 300 msnm), se compararon los mecanismos de utilización de distintas fuentes de agua por las especies arbustivas, en dos a1'íos con precipitaciones contrastantes. En este trabajo se incluyen antecedentes de estudios fenológicos; arquitectura radical y fuentes de agua utilizadas por arbustos mediante el uso de isótopos estables. Para e l sistema estudiado se reconocen 6 grupos funcionales basados en la obtención y utilización del agua. Los grupos funcionales fueron definidos con base en su hábito (caducifolios y siempre verdes), sus sistemas radicales (superficial, dimórfico o profundo) y la capacidad de utilizar distintas fuentes de agua (superficial y/ o profunda). Debido al impacto diferencial sobre los distintos grupos funcionales, se postula que el sobre pastoreo con caprinos resultaría en una menor utilización de aguas superficiales. Un plan de manejo y/o restauración debería maximizar la utilización de todas las fuentes de agua disponibles para recuperar la productividad primaria y la estabilidad del sistema. Esto se lograría a través de reforzar los grupos funcionales más afectados y a las especies facilitadoras. Estos planes deben considerar además el escenario futuro, que incluye desde las tendencias climáticas (e.g., disminución de las precipitaciones) y cambios socio-culturales (e.g., promoción de la crianza intensiva del ganado caprino en lugar de extensiva).

Los arbustos leñosos y las cactáceas representan formas de vida peculiares de los ambientes áridos y semiáridos de Chile. Contribuyen significativamente a mantener la integridad física de los ecosistemas semiáridos a través de evitar o aminorar la erosión de los suelos. Hacen aportes importantes a la constitución orgánica de los suelos y bajo sus copas existen condiciones más favorables para el reclutamiento de plántulas de arbustos y de plantas herbáceas. Los arbustos son importantes no sólo porque confieren estabilidad estructural sino porque además contribuyen significativamente a mantener la alta biodiversidad de los ecosistemas semiáridos. La eliminación de la vegetación arbustiva acelera el proceso de la erosión y consiguientemente de la desertificación y, además, se pierden importantes funciones ecosistémicas.

ABSTRACT Environmental-induced phenotypic variation in plants is often considered to be a functional response that maximizes fitness in heterogeneous environments. Lycopersicon chilense, a tomato species endemic to Atacama Desert, shows altitudinal phenotypics variations in their natural environments, which could be due to different soil water availabilities. It is hypothesized that (a) seeds coming from populations of different environments, cultivated in the same environment, will have similar phenotypes, if populations are not genetically differentiated, and that (b) the different populations subjected to two drought levels should vary their phenotypic constitution with respect to the control groups. The responses of twenty phenotypic traits to different irrigation levels were studied in nine wild populations of Lycopersicon chilense. Seeds were collected from populations along an altitudinal gradient (from 20 m to 3,075 m), transferred to a common environment and grown under three soil water conditions: low (80 % FC), moderate (40 % FC) and severe (20 % FC). In spite of the climatic differences in their natural habitat the phenotypic responses of plants growing in the same environment was similar in the nine populations. Significant differences among populations were only observed in three out of twenty traits (fruit fresh weight, fruit volume and number of seeds per fruit). Soil water deficit induced a phenotypic response in twelve characters; among these: root dry weight, cover, number of seeting fruits and number of seeds per fruit showed the highest significance. An interaction between population and drought treatment was found only for fresh weight of fruits, fruit volume and number of seeds per fruit. Our data indicate that the phenotypic response does not differ among populations growing under similar environmental conditions. Probably the phenotypic response of L. chilense in their natural habitats is related to physiological and metabolic adjustment rather than genetic variation.La variación fenotípica que induce el ambiente en las plantas ha sido considerada como una respuesta que maximiza la adaptación a ambientes heterogéneos. Lycopersicon chilense, una especie de tomate endémica del Desierto de Atacama, presenta variaciones fenotípicas altitudinales en sus ambientes naturales, las que podrían deberse a diferentes grados de disponibilidad de agua en el suelo. Se hipotetiza que (a) semillas de poblaciones provenientes de distintos ambientes, crecidas en un ambiente común, presentarán fenotipos semejantes, si las poblaciones no están diferenciadas genéticamente y que (b) las diferentes poblaciones al ser sometidas a dos niveles de sequía deberían variar su constitución fenotípica con respecto al grupo control. Se estudió la respuesta de 20 rasgos fenotípicos en nueve poblaciones de Lycopersicon chilense sometidas a distintos niveles de riego. Las semillas fueron colectadas en un gradiente altitudinal (desde los 20 a los 3.075 m de altitud), germinadas, puestas a crecer a las mismas condiciones climáticas y sometidas a tres niveles de riego: bajo (80 % CC), moderado (40 % CC) y severo (20 % CC). A pesar de las diferencias climáticas en sus ambientes naturales, la respuesta fenotípica de las plantas fue semejante en las nueve poblaciones cuando crecieron en un ambiente común. Diferencias significativas entre las poblaciones se encontraron en tres de los 20 rasgos investigados (el número de semillas por fruto, el peso fresco de los frutos y el volumen de los frutos). El déficit hídrico indujo una respuesta fenotípica en 12 caracteres. Los más significantivos fueron: peso seco de las raíces, cobertura, número de frutos cuajados y el número de semillas por fruto. Interacción entre las poblaciones y el tratamiento de déficit hídrico se encontró sólo en el número de semillas por fruto, el peso fresco de los frutos y el volumen de los frutos. Nuestros datos indican que la respuesta fenotípica parece no diferir entre las poblaciones cuando estas crecen bajo condiciones ambientales similares. Probablemente la respuesta fenotípica de Lycopersicon chilense en sus ambientes naturales está más relacionada con ajustes fisiológicos y metabólicos que con una diferenciación genética.

Scatter-hoarding rodents can act as both predators and dispersers for many large-seeded plants because they cache seeds for future use, but occasionally forget them in sites with high survival and establishment probabilities. The most important fruit or seed trait influencing rodent foraging behavior is seed size; rodents prefer large seeds because they have higher nutritional content, but this preference can be counterbalanced by the higher costs of handling larger seeds. We designed a cafeteria experiment to assess whether fruit and seed size of Myrcianthes coquimbensis, an endangered desert shrub, influence the decision-making process during foraging by three species of scatter-hoarding rodents differing in body size: Abrothrix olivaceus, Phyllotis darwini and Octodon degus. We found that the size of fruits and seeds influenced foraging behavior in the three rodent species; the probability of a fruit being harvested and hoarded was higher for larger fruits than for smaller ones. Patterns of fruit size preference were not affected by rodent size; all species were able to hoard fruits within the entire range of sizes offered. Finally, fruit and seed size had no effect on the probability of seed predation, rodents typically ate only the fleshy pulp of the fruits offered and discarded whole, intact seeds. In conclusion, our results reveal that larger M. coquimbensis fruits have higher probabilities of being harvested, and ultimately of its seeds being hoarded and dispersed by scatter-hoarding rodents. As this plant has no other dispersers, rodents play an important role in its recruitment dynamics.

El aumento de la demanda energética chilena en los últimos años ha promovido la creación de una gran cantidad de proyectos de generación eléctrica. La posible instalación de tres centrales termoeléctricas a carbón al norte de la Región de Coquimbo y en las inmediaciones de áreas definidas como claves para la conservación y manejo de la biodiversidad marina (e.g., reservas marinas, áreas de manejo y explotación de recursos bentónicos) y terrestre (e.g., reserva nacional, sitios prioritarios), ha generado conflictos sociales y controversias sobre su ubicación y compatibilidad con los usos propuestos para el área. El presente comentario plantea el conflicto que se origina entre la necesidad de cubrir los requerimientos energéticos de Chile y la implementación de iniciativas de conservación y manejo de recursos naturales. Se describe la importancia y relevancia ecológica y económica del área de posible instalación de las termoeléctricas y se revisan los principales impactos reportados para este tipo de tecnología sobre la salud humana y ecosistémica. Finalmente, se proponen enfoques y herramientas que pueden asistir en la toma de decisiones y en la resolución de conflictos.In recent years, Chilean increasing energy needs have promoted the creation of many initiatives to generate electricity. The possible installation of three coal-fired power plants in the coastal area north of the Region of Coquimbo and close to areas identified as key to the conservation and management of marine (e.g., marine reserves, management and exploitation areas for benthic resources) and terrestrial (e.g., national reserve, priority sites) biodiversity, has generated social conflicts and raised concerns about the location and compatibility with others proposed uses for the area. This commentary proposes the conflict that arises between the need to cope with Chile's energy needs and the implementation of conservation and management of natural resources initiatives. We describe the ecological and economic significance and importance of the area of possible installation of power plants and the main impacts reported for this type of technology on human and ecosystem health. Finally, we suggest approaches and tools that can help in decision-making and conflicts resolution.

A partir de 1985 comienzan los esfuerzos del Estado de Chile, con el apoyo de especialistas, para generar listas de especies de plantas (1985) y animales (1987) con altos a moderados riesgos de extinción en el corto plazo producto de actividades antrópicas (i.e., especies amenazadas). Las siete categorías de amenazas utilizadas para la fauna coinciden con las empleadas por la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN) en 1982; para la flora hubo coincidencia en solo cinco de las categorías utilizadas. En el año 1994, la Ley 19300 de Bases del Medio Ambiente estableció seis categorías de estados de conservación. El Reglamento para la Clasificación de Especies Silvestres, promulgado el 2005, definió estas seis categorías haciendo una combinación entre lo propuesto por la UICN en 2001 y 1982. La generación de este sistema híbrido que no era comparable con el utilizado ampliamente en el mundo, restringió severamente la posibilidad de clasificar a las especies con amenaza inferior al nivel de Vulnerable. Complicaciones adicionales se generaron con la inclusión de categorías de conservación en la Ley 19473 de Caza (1996), la Ley 20283 sobre Recuperación del Bosque Nativo y Fomento Forestal (2008), y sus respectivos reglamentos. La Ley 20417 (publicada el 26 de enero 2010) modificó la ley 19300 e incorporó las categorías recomendadas por la UICN. Ahora el Estado requiere adecuar varios cuerpos legales para avanzar en el conocimiento del estado de conservación de la flora y la fauna nacional, y consecuentemente, asegurar la implementación de medidas efectivas de protección de la biodiversidad.Since 1985, the Chilean government with the participation and support of different specialists in plant and animal conservation, started the publication of checklists (i.e. red books) of plant (1985) and animal species (1987) with high to modérate risk of extinction due to human activities (i.e. threatened species). The seven categories of threats used in these publications matched those used by the International Unión for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1982; nonetheless, for the flora there was matching only in five of the categories used. In 1994, the Law 19300 on the General Bases of the Environment established six categories of conservation status. The regulations for the classification of the wild species in Conservation categories, enacted in 2005, defined these six categories, which resulted from a combination of those proposed by the IUCN in 2001 and 1982. The generation of this hybrid system, which is not fully comparable with that of the IUCN (2001) and widely used in the rest of the world, has severely restricted the possibility of classifying species with a threat level lower than "Vulnerable". Further complications were generated due to the definition of conservation categories that appeared in the Laws 19473 (1996) regulating the hunting activity and 20283 (2008) supporting the native forest recovery and forestry development. The Law 20417 (enacted in January 26, 2010) modified the Law 19300 and incorporated the categories recommended by IUCN. Currently, the State requires adapting several legal bodies to advance in the knowledge of the conservation status of the nation's flora and fauna, and consequently, ensure the implementation of effective efforts to protect our biodiversity.

La producción de carbón vegetal a partir de arbustos leñosos es una de las principales amenazas para la vegetación nativa en zonas áridas. En este trabajo se estima la producción de carbón en la provincia de Huasco, al sur de la Región de Atacama, y se identifican las principales especies utilizadas en este proceso. Se detectaron 21 puntos de venta de carbón nativo en el área de estudio. En cada uno de ellos se recolectaron muestras del carbón comercializado, las que fueron posteriormente comparadas con muestras de referencia. Se realizaron 28 entrevistas a vendedores, productores de carbón nativo e informantes claves, para estimar el volumen de producción anual. Se identificaron 4 sitios productivos en la zona de estudio, tres de ellos entre Vallenar y El Tránsito, y uno en Incahuasi-Tres Cruces. Se estimó para el año 2007 una producción total de carbón vegetal de 281 toneladas para la provincia de Huasco, lo que equivale a una extracción anual de arbustos en un área de entre 573 y 1.112 hectáreas. Los principales arbustos nativos utilizados corresponden a Fabiano imbricata (Solanaceae), Balsamocarpon brevifolium (Fabaceae) y Adesmia hystrix (Fabaceae).Charcoal production from woody shrubs is one of the main threats to native vegetation in arid zones. The aim of this investigation was to estimate the production of charcoal produced in Huasco province, southern of Atacama Región, and to identify the main species used in this process. Twenty one points of sale of native charcoal were detected in the study área. In each point, samples of the commercialized charcoal were collected and subsequently compared with reference samples. Twenty eight sellers, charcoal producers, and key informants were interviewed to estimate the volume of annual production. Four places of production were identified in the study área, three of them between Vallenar and El Tránsito, and one of them in Incahuasi-Tres Cruces. For 2007, a total production of 281 tons of charcoal was estimated in Huasco province, which is equivalent to an annual extraction of shrubs between 573 y 1,112 hectares. The main native shrubs used for the production of charcoal are Fabiana imbricata (Solanaceae), Balsamocarpon brevifolium (Fabaceae) and Adesmia hystrix (Fabaceae).

There is an exceptional group of alpine peatlands in the world situated in the arid grasslands of the central Andes. The peatlands in northern Chile occur in the most arid part of their range. Members of the Juncaceae are the primary peat-forming plant species. Fresh and mildly saline groundwaters originate from glaciers, snowmelt and rain are the water sources for the northern Chile peatlands. Paleoecological investigations suggest that some peatlands are recent features of the landscape having developed within the last three thousand years or less. These peatlands are unique, extremely fragile water features sensitive to climate changes and human disturbances such as regional mining activity. Much more work is required to develop scientifically based sound management and conservation programs for the rare plants and animals that live in them and to ensure the future livelihoods of the indigenous peoples who depend on themExiste un grupo excepcional de turberas (bofedales) de alta montaña en el mundo situados en la estepa árida de los Andes centrales. Los bofedales en el norte de Chile están presentes en la parte más árida de su rango. Las principales especies de plantas responsables de la formación de turba corresponden a miembros de Juncaceae. El agua fresca y medianamente salina de los bofedales proviene de agua subterránea asociada a riachuelos proveniente de glaciares, derretimiento de nieve y lluvia. Investigaciones paleoecológicas sugieren que algunos bofedales son integrantes recientes del paisaje, habiéndose desarrollado durante los últimos tres mil años o menos. Estos bofedales son entidades únicas, extremadamente frágiles por su dependencia del agua, sensibles a los cambios climáticos y vulnerables a la alteración humana tal como la actividad minera en la región. Se requiere mucho más trabajo para desarrollar programas de manejo y conservación, con sólidas bases científicas, de las plantas y animales que viven en ellos, y para asegurar la capacidad futura de pastoreo de la cual dependen los pueblos indígenas