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Strength-based assessment has achieved acceptance from educational, mental health, and social service professionals as a means to measuring emotional and behavioral strengths of children. Several standardized, norm-referenced tests have been developed to assess these strengths; however, the primary mode of assessment is via informal interviews of parents and caregivers. In many cases, these interviews lack psychometric support, including basic validity and reliability. The purpose of this study was to document the multistep process used to establish the content validity of a newly developed instrument: Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale: Strength-Based Interview. Specifically, the results of a survey of 40 U.S. professional mental health staff and educators are described where respondents rated the importance of interview questions to the construct of strength-based assessment. The findings of the survey as well as the 18 items deemed most important are reported. Research limitations, future research, and implications for mental health and educational professionals are discussed.

The present study was conducted to determine whether the problem characteristics of U.S. students school-identified with emotional disturbance (ED) have changed over two decades. We used data from a teacher rating instrument designed to measure the five problem characteristics of ED, as stated in its Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) definition. These data were collected in the process of norming the instrument for 1998 and again for 2020. Comparison of the 1998 and 2020 students school-identified with ED showed that the 1998 group had significantly more problematic functioning on two characteristics, namely, Relationship Problems and Inappropriate Behavior, but no more problematic differences on Inability to Learn, Unhappiness or Depression, and Physical Symptoms or Fears. In addition, analyses of selected items gave more context to the main results. Study limitations, future research, and implications are discussed.

Identifying student strengths is central to transition planning. However, school personnel use few assessments that operationalize behavioral and emotional strengths, and the psychometric functioning of those measures have not been established with transition-age students. In this two-part study, we used a national sample of transition-age students to examine validity evidence for scores from the "Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale-3: Teacher Rating Scale" (BERS-3 TRS). Study 1 evaluated the internal structure and test score reliability of the scores for 275 students with exceptionalities. Study II used a sample of 566 students to examine differences in scores between students with and without exceptionalities. Findings from these studies represent evidence for the validity and interpretation of scores for transition-age students with exceptionalities.

Provide data on the five characteristics of emotional disturbance (ED). For 503 students with ED and 2016 without disabilities, teachers rated the characteristics ("Inability to Learn;" "Relationship Problems;" "Inappropriate Behavior;" "Unhappiness or Depression;" "Physical Symptoms or Fears"), plus "Socially Maladjusted." We applied a 2 (ED, without disabilities) × 2 (female, male) × 3 (elementary, middle, high school) covariance analysis, with follow-up comparisons. Students with ED showed greater problems than students without disabilities on all five characteristics, and "Socially Maladjusted." On "Inability to Learn," among students with ED genders did not differ at elementary but males had greater problems at middle school. On "Inappropriate Behavior" and "Physical Symptoms or Fears," students with ED varied across school levels but students without disabilities did not. All five characteristics discriminated students with ED from those without disabilities. Differences between genders and school levels varied across characteristics.

Ensuring the provision of a free, appropriate public education (FAPE) to students qualified for services under the disability category of emotional disturbance (ED) has been both challenging and controversial. Examining this population in light of the five characteristics listed in the federal definition may provide useful insights to address needs and improve outcomes. The purpose of this study was to use latent class analysis to examine profiles across the five characteristics of the federal definition of ED for a sample of 491 students school-identified with ED. Key findings include that (a) students with ED are a heterogeneous group with distinct and qualitatively different subgroups; (b) latent classes representing the severe problems and the externalizing problems typologies tended to consist of younger students; (c) greater proportions of Black, Hispanic, and English-language learner students were found in the severe and externalizing latent classes; and (d) students in the externalizing and severe latent classes spent more time in special education classrooms and had worse ratings on social maladjustment. The findings highlight important implications for practice in regard to assessment, program differentiation, and preservice teacher training. Research limitations and directions for future research are also discussed.

This study examined the internal structure of the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance-3 Rating Scale (RS), a teacher-completed RS developed to measure emotional disturbance (ED). As defined in U.S. law and regulations, ED involves five characteristics or patterns of behavioral and emotional maladaptation. RS data obtained on a sample of students with ED were used to examine validity evidence based on the internal structure of the assessment. Of particular interest was the extent to which multivariate factors derived from the RS data conform to the five characteristics of ED stated in the definition. Results indicate that the RS data fit a 5-factor model reasonably well. A subsequent bifactor analysis identified a considerable proportion of common variance across factors, suggesting the presence of a strong general ED factor, two distinct group factors (Inability to Learn and Inappropriate Behavior), and three weak group factors. The findings provided evidence of the validity of the SAED-3 RS based on internal structure and pointed to support for use of the RS in contributing to the process of determining whether a student qualifies for the ED education disability. Implications for improved research on the nature of ED and how students with ED can be better served are discussed.

For years, the research and policy focus on Black students with emotional disturbance (ED) has been on racial disproportionality. The disproportionality issue has sparked professional debate and raised major questions about racial bias, cultural fairness, appropriateness of assessment instruments, the adequacy of special education programs, poverty, exposure to risk factors, and research approaches. Unfortunately, minimal progress has been made on understanding the overrepresentation of Black students in ED programs. The purpose of the present study was to initiate research on the emotional and behavioral functioning of Black students with ED, by comparing the teacher-completed ratings from the "Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance" for Black students with ED (n = 139), Black students without ED (n = 421), White students with ED (n = 271), and White students without ED (n = 1,218). The results demonstrated that: (1) Black students with ED were judged to demonstrate significantly higher levels of emotional and behavioral problems than their Black and White peers without ED; and (2) Black students with ED differed minimally from White students with ED. Research limitations, directions for future research, and implications for assessment and service delivery are discussed.

The present study investigated evidence of the construct validity of scores from the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance Rating Scale (SAED-3 RS), which is designed to help identify emotional disturbance (ED) as defined by U.S. law and regulations. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the degree to which SAED-3 RS scores differed between students with school-identified ED, students with school-identified learning disabilities (LD), and students without disabilities. The sample consisted of 2,193 K-12 students from throughout the U.S. The findings supported three hypotheses related to evidence of construct validity: (1) students with ED would differ from students without disabilities on all five dimensions of the SAED-3 RS; (2) students with ED would differ from students with LD on all dimensions of the SAED-3 RS except for the Inability to Learn dimensions; and (3) students with LD would differ from students without disabilities on all five dimensions of the SAED-3 RS, but that these differences would be smaller than the differences between students with ED and students without disabilities. Implications for practice and directions for future research are also discussed.

The present study explored the psychometric properties of ratings made using the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance--Third Edition: Rating Scale (SAED-3 RS), a scale developed for use in identifying school-age students with emotional and behavioral problems. The purposes of the study were to assess differential item functioning (DIF) for SAED-3 RS items between White and Hispanic students and to assess the impact of DIF on SAED-3 RS scale scores. The sample consisted of 979 students without disabilities who were identified as White/Non-Hispanic (71.91%) and Hispanic (28.09%). The data indicated that SAED-3 RS items demonstrated small to negligible levels of DIF and that DIF did not saliently impact scores. The data suggest that items and scores yielded from the SAED-3 RS are consistent in measuring the emotional and behavioral functioning of school-age students from diverse backgrounds. Research limitations, future research directions, and practical use implications for school personnel are discussed.

The present study investigated evidence of the construct validity of scores from the Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS-3), which is a multi-informant assessment designed to measure the behavioral and emotional strengths of school-aged youth. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the degree to which BERS-3 scores differed between students with school-identified emotional disturbance and students without disabilities. Two nationally representative samples were used in this study: (a) 1,575 students rated by teachers and (b) 793 youth who provided self-ratings. The results of multivariate multiple regression analyses supported the primary hypothesis that students with emotional disturbance would have lower scores on each of the five BERS-3 subscale scores compared to peers without disabilities. This finding held for both samples; however, differences between students with emotional disturbance and the peers without disabilities were substantially smaller for the youth self-ratings compared to teacher ratings. Implications for practice and directions for future research are also discussed.

Community-based systems of care (SOC) provide a range of services to students with significant emotional and behavioral difficulties and their families. However, little is known about the educational characteristics and functioning of students at enrollment in SOC. The purpose of this study was to replicate and extend previous research by examining the educational characteristics and predictors of school functioning for students referred to SOC using a large and diverse national data source. Participants were 5,628 students ages 6 to 18 years who were enrolled in community-based SOC across 45 U.S. states, districts, and territories. Students' grades, discipline, and attendance (as reported by caregivers) were used as indicators of school functioning, and students' demographic characteristics, referral source, and emotional/behavioral functioning were used to predict functioning in school, including the testing of interaction effects. Findings revealed that, although many students earned average grades, a large portion of students had significant discipline and attendance problems. Results of the ordinal regression analyses indicated that most demographic variables and measures of clinical functioning significantly predicted students' grades, attendance, and discipline, and that age and special education status represented a significant interaction. Findings provide insight into the educational functioning of students at enrollment in community-based SOC and have implications for research and practice.

The present study investigated the psychometric properties of the "Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance -- Third Edition: Rating Scale" (SAED-3 RS), which is designed for use in identifying students with emotional disturbance for special education services. The purposes of this study were to evaluate (a) the measurement invariance of SAED-3 RS scores between White and African American students and (b) the impact of differential item functioning (DIF) on test scores from the SAED-3 RS. The sample consisted of 855 K-12 students from throughout the United States. The findings suggested that SAED-3 RS items exhibited small to negligible levels of DIF and that DIF did not significantly impact scores. The results supported the SAED-3 RS, a teacher-completed rating scale, as relatively consistent in measuring the emotional and behavioral status of school-age students from different racial backgrounds. Researchers and practitioners can have confidence that scores from the SAED-3 RS are not substantially affected by DIF when assessing the emotional and behavioral functioning of African American and White school-age students. Research limitations, future research, and implications for school professionals are discussed.

The purpose of this article is to provide a qualitative review of the published research on the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance-3: Screener noting the psychometric properties and overall findings. Results from 10 studies were reviewed and summarized. Across the studies, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and inter-rater agreement were satisfactory. Unidimensionality of the tests scores was supported, and several studies reported only trivial degrees of bias across racial/ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. Diagnostic utility was acceptable as were convergent relations with other measures of psychopathology. Social validity was also satisfactory. This review indicates that the psychometric properties of the scores from the Screener meet acceptable professional standards and supports its use in school-based programs to identify at-risk students.

Youth served in residential care often demonstrate significant educational and behavioral gains during treatment; however, struggles evidenced during the reunification and reintegration process underscore the importance of continued aftercare services and supports. While these needs have been widely noted in the literature, little is known about youth perceptions regarding the importance of aftercare or preferences regarding specific supports. The purpose of this study was to assess the views of youth discharging from a residential program on perceptions of transition planning and aftercare, preparedness for the reintegration, and perceptions regarding specific services and supports. One-hundred and thirty-two youth served in a large residential care facility were asked to complete a Youth Aftercare Survey prior to departure to determine youth perceptions. Overall, results revealed high levels of youth optimism about their preparedness for the upcoming transition and identified supports in education, relationships, physical health, independent living, and family as most important to the reintegration process. Although promising findings were revealed regarding youth perceptions of the importance of continued supports across broad domains, youth were less concerned about mental health supports; a factor critical to long-term success. Implications, limitations, and future research are discussed.

The present study examined the measurement properties of the Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS), a universal screening instrument which identifies students presenting with emotional and behavioral problems. The primary research questions sought to examine the degree to which the EBS item responses fit the Rasch model through evaluating fit of item responses to the Rasch model and item-measure correlations. The sample consisted of K-12 students with emotional disturbance (n = 1138) and with no identified disabilities (n = 1096). Students were rated by their teachers on the 10-item EBS. The findings suggested the EBS possesses favorable measurement properties such that most items had (1) overall good fit to the Rasch model, (2) a few items across age/gender that assess internalizing problems were found to be somewhat problematic, (3) the item hierarchy was found to align with logical and theoretical expectations, and (4) teachers endorsed the response options in a reliable and predictive manner with response categories mostly being distinguishable from one another. Overall, the results justify the interpretations and decisions made with the EBS scores.

Child assessment practices have undergone, and are continuing to undergo, significant changes. Among the most prominent changes is the movement toward measuring child well-being, in general, and emotional and behavioral strengths, in particular. The Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS) is a strength-based instrument which is widely used in the United States and is beginning to be used internationally. The purpose of this review was to assess the translation adaptation process and to determine the psychometric properties of the BERS scores when used in countries other than the United States. Results from 15 international studies indicated that the researchers followed acceptable standards for test adaptation and the BERS scores generally met acceptable professional standards for reliability and validity. The limitations with the review process and the published studies were identified, as well as the directions for future research and implications for professional practice.

Youth involved in residential care programs present with significant difficulties across behavioral and mental health domains. Although this is a group that is also at considerable risk for academic failure, very little research has been done to understand the academic functioning of this population. The current study sought to expand what is known about this population and examine factors that are predictive of their levels of academic functioning. Results from 208 youth indicated that at the time of entry into residential care youth were performing in low average ranges across academic areas. While several variables were identified as predictors for level of academic functioning (e.g., IQ, age at admission, race/ethnicity, special education identification, and gender), variables particularly relevant for youth in residential care programs (e.g., behavior, number of previous schools attended) did not serve as predictors. Implications for practice and future research are discussed. (Contains 2 tables.)

The objective of this study was to assess the measurement invariance of items from the Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS) across racial and ethnic groups and assess the impact of differential item functioning (DIF) on test scores from the EBS. Participants were 4,856 first-grade students (49% female) who were diverse with regard to race and ethnicity (45% African American, 41% Hispanic/Latino, and 14% Caucasian). Classroom teachers rated each student on the EBS during the fall semester screening window. Item response theory modeling was combined with ordinal regression to investigate the presence and impact of differential item functioning across 3 race and ethnicity groups. The findings suggest that items from the EBS exhibit small to negligible levels of DIF, and the limited DIF that was present does not significantly impact overall scores. Researchers and practitioners can have confidence that scores from the EBS are relatively unaffected by test bias when measuring the emotional and behavioral risk of young students from African American, Hispanic/Latino, or Caucasian backgrounds.

There have been significant changes in the racial/ethnic and linguistic background of students attending public schools in the United States. The number of public-school students who are English language learners (ELLs) participating in programs of language assistance has more than doubled over the past two decades. In 1993-1994, 5.1% of public-school students in the United States were ELLs, or an estimated 2.1 million students. As of 2014-2015, 9.4% of students were ELLs, or an estimated 4.6 million students. It is estimated that by 2030, upward of 40% of school children will speak English as a second language. Meeting the needs of students who are not proficient in English is challenging for school professionals and even more so if they are identified for special services. Researchers have found that ELL students live in situations with numerous high-risk factors, including poverty, inadequate schools, poor and violent neighborhoods, and limited access to adequate health care, mental health services, and schools. As a group, these students are more likely to underperform academically, have a lower grade point average, and drop out of school compared to non-ELL Latino students.

The present study examined the psychometric properties of a universal screening instrument called the Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS), which is designed to identify students exhibiting emotional and behavioral problems. The primary purposes of this study were to assess the measurement invariance of EBS items between Caucasian and African-American students and to assess the impact of differential item functioning (DIF) on EBS scores. The sample consisted of 946 elementary students from throughout the U.S. The findings suggested that EBS items exhibited small to negligible levels of DIF, and that DIF did not significantly impact EBS scores. The results supported the EBS as universal screening instrument that is fair in measuring the emotional and behavioral risk of elementary students. Research limitations and implications for school professionals are discussed.

In schools, screening is an effective method to identify students at-risk for emotional and behavioural disorders. Several intervention programmes such as Positive Behaviour Interventions and Supports, Response to Intervention, and Multi-tiered Systems of Supports call for the use of psychometrically sound screening instruments. This study investigated diagnostic utility of a brief (10-item) screener, the Emotional and Behavioural Screener (EBS) with a sample 312 Lithuanian students. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire was used as a reference point for the investigation. Diagnostic utility statistics (i.e. overall agreement, misleading negatives, sensitivity, specificity and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve) were used to evaluate the usefulness and validity of the EBS. The results indicate, that majority of the diagnostic utility statistics thresholds were met; however, some gender differences were found. In sum, the EBS appears to be an accurate screener discriminating students not at-risk and at-risk for emotional and behavioural problems. Study limitations, future research directions and implications are discussed.

While much is known about the educational, behavioral, and social needs of adolescents receiving school-based special education services, one critical domain, health literacy, has been largely unexamined. Given the impact of health and health management on the well-being of all persons, and the likelihood of additional challenges for students receiving special education supports, this study sought to examine and compare the health needs and transition preparedness of 341 adolescents with and without Individualized Education Programs (IEPs). Survey items were selected from widely used health literacy, health risk, and health related quality of life measures. Findings revealed that for students with IEPs, the risk for having limited health literacy was 128% higher than for their peers without IEPs. Students with IEPs were also significantly more likely to demonstrate risk across indicators of health related quality of life, health risk, and access. Limitations, research recommendations, and implications are addressed.

Early identification of student behavioral needs allows educators the opportunity to apply appropriate interventions before negative behaviors become more intensive and persistent. A variety of screening tools are available to identify which students are at risk for persistent behavior problems in school. This article provides two examples in which the "Emotional and Behavioral Screener" (EBS) was used to identify students at risk of emotional or behavioral problems. Example 1 demonstrates how the EBS can be used within a schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports framework to inform decision making. Example 2 demonstrates how the EBS can be used to inform behavioral intervention decisions in an individual teacher's classroom. Finally, suggestions for using the EBS across various school formats are provided.

Strength-based assessment of behaviors in preschool children provides evidence of emotional and behavioral skills in children, rather than focusing primarily on weaknesses identified by deficit-based assessments. The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scales (PreBERS) is a normative assessment of emotional and behavioral strengths in preschool children. The PreBERS has well-established reliability and validity for typically developing children as well as children with identified special education needs, but this has not yet been established for children in Head Start programs, who tend to be at high risk for development of emotional and behavioral concerns. This study explores the factorial validity of the PreBERS scores for a large sample of children participating in Head Start programs around the United States. Results not only confirm the fit of the four-factor model of the PreBERS for this population, but also demonstrate the application of a bifactor model to the structure of the PreBERS which, in turn, allows for the computation of model-based reliability estimates for the four subscales (Emotional Regulation, School Readiness, Social Confidence, Family Involvement) and overall strength index score. The implications suggest that the PreBERS items are reliable scores that can be used to identify behavioral strengths in preschool children in Head Start, and support planning of interventions to selectively address component skills to promote child social and academic success.

The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (PreBERS) is an assessment of emotional and behavioral strengths in preschoolers with well-established reliability and validity for educational and clinical application in children with and without disabilities. The present study provides further evidence of psychometric rigor for items and subscales within the PreBERS, including internal consistency, reliability, item quality, and factorial validity. A national sample of 1,292 preschool children whose teachers scored the PreBERS were analyzed using classical test theory, Rasch modeling, and confirmatory factor analysis. Results confirmed that individual items were internally consistent within a four-factor model, and showed consistent item difficulty, discrimination, and fit relative to their respective subscale scores. This analysis provides further confidence for the use of the PreBERS by teachers to determine emotional and behavioral strengths in preschool children.

When rating scales are used in different countries, thorough investigation of the psychometric properties is needed. We examined the internal structure of the Finnish translated Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale-2 (BERS-2) using Rasch and confirmatory factor analysis approaches with a sample of youth, parents, and teachers. The results suggested that the Finnish translated BERS-2 has acceptable measurement properties and is suitable for use in Finnish schools. Results highlighted the issue that there is a need to consider cross-cultural aspects when introducing new measures in another culture. Directions for future research are also discussed in light of present findings.

Students who exhibit substantial behavior and emotional problems in school often have shown less severe problems earlier. Screening for such problems can suggest which students need extra support and help educators to direct support to students who are more likely to benefit. The present study explored predictive validity of a very brief behavior problem screening procedure as applied to 2,253 students ages 5 to 17 years. About half were special education students identified with emotional disturbance; the rest were students with no identified disabilities. Teachers rated them on the 10 items of the "Emotional and Behavioral Screener." Any student whose sum of ratings exceeded a norm-based cutoff score was designated as at-risk; otherwise the student was not at-risk. Binary classification analyses of four age-level by gender subgroups of students showed that the instrument validly identifies at-risk students. Study method limitations and directions for research to clarify some remaining questions about this screening procedure are presented.

The Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS) is a universal screening instrument designed to identify students whose excessive problem behaviors put them at risk of the education disability category of emotional disturbance (ED). This article reports findings from three studies that address the reliability and validity of the EBS. Studies 1 and 2 examined the test-retest and inter-rater reliability of the EBS. Study 3 investigated the convergent validity of the EBS by comparing it to the "Behavioral and Emotional Screening System." The results from these studies support the reliability and validity of the EBS as a universal screening instrument for identifying students who may be at risk of ED or those who may require a greater degree of monitoring, decision-making, formal assessment, or intervention to restore normal behavior functioning and prevent identification as ED. Implications, research limitations, and future research needs are discussed.

This study investigated the cross-informant agreement among student self-report, teacher report, and parent report on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire translated into Finnish (SDQ-Fin) and estimated mean convergent and divergent correlations with a sample of fifth-grade Finnish students (N = 588) and the cross-informant agreement among student-teacher-parent informants separately for those with and without special education support. In addition, the study estimated the within-rater stabilities of SDQ subscales for students with and without special education support between two measurements at a one year interval. The cross-informant agreement on SDQ-Fin subscales was moderate with cross-informant correlations ranging from 0.12 to 0.42. The cross-informant agreement between teachers and students was in general higher for students with special education (SE) support than students without special education (NSE) support. The mean convergent correlations were higher than the mean divergent correlations across raters. The rater stabilities of SDQ subscales for NSE students and SE students between fifth and sixth grade as indicated by stability correlations were all statistically significant. Our findings provide additional evidence of the usefulness of the SDQ in school environments, and underline the importance of a multi-informant approach to the evaluation of emotional and behavioral problems.

In previous research the Finnish version of the Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale-2 (Epstein, 2004) has demonstrated adequate internal consistency and reliability. The purpose of the present study was to examine the convergent validity of the Finnish BERS-2 by comparing it with the Finnish version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, with teachers and parents as the raters. The results add to the research base to suggest that the Finnish BERS-2 is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing the emotional and behavioral strengths of children and youth.

Youth in residential treatment settings often present with a complex combination of mental and physical health problems. Despite an emerging literature documenting significant associations between mental health and physical health, the relationship between these two areas of functioning has not been systematically examined in youth presenting to residential treatment. This study examines the association between youth psychopathology and physical health problems in a sample of 606 youth entering a large residential treatment program between 2003 and 2010. As a part of the intake process, youth psychopathology symptoms were assessed using the parent-report form of the Child Behavior Checklist, and youth physical health problems were assessed in a medical evaluation by a licensed child health professional. Results indicated that higher levels of youth psychopathology, particularly internalizing problems, were associated with greater risk for physical health problems and more prescription medications. Psychopathology comorbidity was also associated with physical health problems. These findings suggest an interplay between physical and mental health among youth entering residential treatment, highlighting the need for integrated assessment and intervention services that address psychological and medical needs within this population. (Contains 5 tables.)

A key issue in using the federal definition of emotional disturbance (ED) is the challenge of measuring five characteristics of ED (Epstein, Nordness, Cullinan, & Hertzog, 2002). Stated briefly, these five characteristics include: (1) an inability to learn; (2) relationship problems; (3) inappropriate behavior; (4) unhappiness or depression; and (5) physical symptoms or fears. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA, 2004) specifies that data for making a disability identification must arise from multiple sources, and proper assessment practice dictates this as well (Salvia, Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2007; Turnbull, Huerta, & Stowe, 2006). Thus, school personnel use a variety of assessment practices to gather information for deciding whether to identify a student with an emotional disturbance. Among these assessment practices are teacher nomination, teacher-completed rating scales, student-completed self-rating scales, semi structured interviews of student or parent, and measurement of observed student behavior. Classroom observation of a student for identification as ED is a requirement in the special education regulations of many states. However, the nature of such observation is often unspecified, with assessors and teams having various possibilities. Classroom observations provide a measure of actual classroom behavior that can be an important supplement to other assessment practices to determine eligibility as well as intervention decisions. Observation protocols that accompany the "Aschenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment Child Behavior Checklist" (ASEBA), "Behavioral Assessment System for Children-Second Edition" (BASC2), and "Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders" (SSBD) can be used to provide supportive documentation to assist in eligibility decisions and intervention planning; however, few are keyed specifically to the federal definition of ED. This column describes a target-behavior recording procedure designed to yield data based on the federal criteria for ED. (Contains 2 tables and 1 note.)

This article describes the Emotional and Behavioral Screener, a brief universal screening procedure designed to help identify students whose emotional and behavioral functioning puts them at risk for future serious problems, including identification in the emotional disturbance category. Development of the screener drew on items and normative samples associated with an existing instrument for measuring emotional disturbance. Among present findings are that the screener possesses high internal consistency reliability, overall and for age, gender, and race/ethnic subgroups. Construct validity was adequate, as indicated by significant discriminations between groups of students known to differ as to emotional and behavioral problems. Discussion includes study limitations, research needs about other psychometric characteristics, and some uses of the Emotional and Behavioral Screener.

The "Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale" (PreBERS) is a standardized, norm-referenced instrument that assesses emotional and behavioral strengths of preschool children. This study investigated whether the PreBERS four-factor structure (i.e., emotional regulation, school readiness, social confidence, and family involvement) could be replicated with an early childhood special education (ECSE) sample of children. Teachers who participated in the study rated a total of 1,103 preschool children with disabilities. Confirmatory factor analysis determined the extent to which the ECSE data fit the original four-factor PreBERS structure identified with the national normative sample. Results indicated that the four-factor structure demonstrated an acceptable fit with the ECSE sample. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

Multiple informants such as teachers, students, and parents are commonly used as sources of information when assessing students' behaviors and emotions. However, there are few studies about cross informant agreement of strength-based assessment. The purpose of this study was to extend the international research on the Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS-2), a strength-based measure, to determine the cross informant agreement and convergent validity between student self-report and teacher report on the Finnish BERS-2 with a sample of 5th grade Finnish students (n=275). The results of this study found that the Finnish BERS-2 possesses moderate to large cross informant agreement with coefficients ranging from 0.35 to 0.51. Consistency between student and teacher ratings shows that the Finnish BERS-2 is a reliable measure to assess students' strengths. (Contains 2 tables.)

At the time of entry into residential treatment, many youth have prescriptions for one or more psychotropic medications. It is not well understood why some youth are prescribed only one psychotropic medication while others may be prescribed more. We sought to determine if differences existed between youth entering residential treatment with monopharmacy (n = 77) versus youth entering with polypharmacy (n = 103). Youth were compared across demographic, family, behavioral, mental health, and psychotropic medication variables. The only significant differences identified were related to the numbers of youth with prescriptions across the different psychotropic classes. As would be expected, youth experiencing polypharmacy were more likely to have prescriptions within each class. Implications, limitations, and recommendations for future research are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

Purpose: Undiagnosed language impairment (LI) for youth in residential care is a concern as similar populations have shown elevated levels of language delays. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to identify the percentage of youth in residential care who are at risk for LI and to compare the demographic, academic achievement, and functional academic skills of youth with or without possible LI. Method: Participants were 80 youth in residential care. Risk for LI was determined using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-4 Screening Test (E. Semel, E. H. Wiig, & W. A. Secord, 2004). Independent-samples "t" tests and chi-square analyses were conducted to assess the differences between groups. Measures used included the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement (R. W. Woodcock, K. S. McGrew, & N. Mather, 2001) and the Kaufman Functional Academic Skills Test (A. S. Kaufman & N. L. Kaufman, 1994). Results: More than half of the sample (54%) were identified as being at risk for LI. Statistically significant differences between youth with and without LI were found on academic variables. Specifically, youth who were at risk for LI presented academic achievement and functional academic scores in the low to low-average ranges. Conclusion: Findings suggest that there is a need to screen youth entering residential programs for possible LI. Implications for treatment and program planning are discussed.

This article reports three studies that evaluated the test-retest and inter-rater reliability of the "Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale" (PreBERS) (Epstein & Synhorst, 2009). First, teachers rated 63 children receiving school services for disability on the PreBERS, with two ratings one month apart. Second, paraprofessionals rated the same children on the PreBERS, with two ratings one month apart. Third, teacher and paraprofessional ratings were compared for inter-rater reliability between these observers. Correlations were large to very large in each of these studies, indicating that the PreBERS is a stable measure across time and raters. Recommendations for use of the PreBERS with preschool children with disabilities as well as directions for future research are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

The assessment of emotional and behavioral strengths has been identified as an important part of the assessment process for children referred for specialized services. The Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale-2 (BERS-2; Epstein, Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale: a strength-based approach to assessment. PRO-Ed, Austin, TX, 2004) was developed as a standardized, norm-referenced instrument to measure strengths of children and youth, and has been found to be a psychometrically sound instrument. We determined the psychometric characteristics of the BERS-2 with a Finnish sample. The BERS-2 was translated in Finnish and 608 Finnish 9th graders filled in the self-evaluation. Results showed that the five subscales of BERS-2 have good reliability and formed a strong strength index. In general, females scored higher than males and special education students scored lower than non-special education students. This study suggests that the translated version of BERS-2 is a valid and reliable instrument in Finland.

Although females represent almost half of all youth involved in residential care in the US, very little is known about this population. In order to examine differences in characteristics of male (n = 308) and female (n = 180) youth departing from residential care, data were collected on 488 youth from a large residential treatment facility in the Midwest. Gender differences were assessed on 16 variables measured at the time of departure across family, education, behavior, and departure domains. Overall, male and female youth departing from residential care were very similar for measures collected at the time of departure. Only three variables (GPA at departure, number of school referrals during the previous 8 weeks, and planned departure) were found to be significantly different between males and females. Implications for future research and the provision of aftercare services are discussed.

The purpose of the present study was to document the development and standardization of the "Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale" and to examine its factor structure, internal consistency, and criterion validity. Data from a nationally representative sample (N = 1,471) of preschool children with and without disabilities were collected. An exploratory factor analysis identified four factors: Emotional Regulation, School Readiness, Social Confidence, and Family Involvement. The subscales and total instrument appear remarkably stable and consistent (0.838 to 0.983). Age differences across 3-, 4-, and 5-year olds were small in magnitude, although girls were rated as possessing significantly more strengths than boys. Preschool children with disabilities were seen as having less emotional and behavioral strength than their peers without disabilities. The limitations and future research needs are discussed. (Contains 5 tables.)

Within 3-tier behavioral models, universal interventions are expected to prevent the onset of problem behavior in a majority of children altogether and to sustain improvements in child outcomes by the selected and indicated interventions. A cohort longitudinal design was used to assess the extent to which a 3-tier model achieves these expected outcomes. The respective universal, selected, and indicated interventions included Behavior and Academic Support and Enhancement, First Step to Success, and MultiSystemic Therapy. A total of 407 children in Grades K-3 from 1 of 4 longitudinal cohorts participated. The results of 2-level linear growth analyses indicate that the 3-tier behavior model achieved the anticipated outcomes with respect to social behavior. The results, limitations, and implications are discussed. (Contains 2 figures and 6 tables.)

The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (PreBERS) is a standardized, norm-referenced instrument that assesses the emotional and behavioral strengths of preschool children. Two studies that investigated the test-retest and inter-rater reliability of the PreBERS are reported. In the first study, teachers rated preschool children (N = 96) on two occasions with 1 month between ratings. Reliability coefficients for the four subscales and total score of the PreBERS were all at or above 0.86. In the second study teachers and paraprofessionals rated the same preschool children (N = 88). All of the correlations were over 0.72. In both studies the magnitude of correlations were large indicating that the PreBERS is a stable measure across time and raters. Based on the data the PreBERS appears to be a psychometrically sound instrument appropriate for use with preschool children. Recommendations for use with preschool children as well as future research are discussed.