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The protein-ligand residence time, τ, influences molecular function in biological networks and has been recognized as an important determinant of drug efficacy. To predict τ, computational methods must overcome the problem that τ often exceeds the timescales accessible to conventional molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. Here, we apply the τ-Random Acceleration Molecular Dynamics (τRAMD) method to a set of kinetically characterized complexes of T4 lysozyme mutants with small, engineered binding cavities. τRAMD yields relative ligand dissociation rates in good accordance with experiments across this diverse set of complexes that differ with regard to measurement temperature, ligand identity, protein mutation and binding cavity. τRAMD thereby allows a comprehensive characterization of the ligand egress routes and determinants of τ. Although ligand dissociation by multiple egress routes is observed, we find that egress via the predominant route determines the value of τ. We also find that the presence of a greater number of metastable states along egress pathways leads to slower protein-ligand dissociation. These physical insights could be exploited in the rational optimization of the kinetic properties of drug candidates.

Drug-target residence times can impact drug efficacy and safety, and are therefore increasingly being considered during lead optimization. For this purpose, computational methods to predict residence times, τ, for drug-like compounds and to derive structure-kinetic relationships are desirable. A challenge for approaches based on molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is the fact that drug residence times are typically orders of magnitude longer than computationally feasible simulation times. Therefore, enhanced sampling methods are required. We recently reported one such approach: the τRAMD procedure for estimating relative residence times by performing a large number of random acceleration MD (RAMD) simulations in which ligand dissociation occurs in times of about a nanosecond due to the application of an additional randomly oriented force to the ligand. The length of the RAMD simulations is used to deduce τ. The RAMD simulations also provide information on ligand egress pathways and dissociation mechanisms. Here, we describe a machine learning approach to systematically analyze protein-ligand binding contacts in the RAMD trajectories in order to derive regression models for estimating τ and to decipher the molecular features leading to longer τ values. We demonstrate that the regression models built on the protein-ligand interaction fingerprints of the dissociation trajectories result in robust estimates of τ for a set of 94 drug-like inhibitors of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), even for the compounds for which the length of the RAMD trajectories does not provide a good estimation of τ. Thus, we find that machine learning helps to overcome inaccuracies in the modeling of protein-ligand complexes due to incomplete sampling or force field deficiencies. Moreover, the approach facilitates the identification of features important for residence time. In particular, we observed that interactions of the ligand with the sidechain of F138, which is located on the border between the ATP binding pocket and a hydrophobic transient sub-pocket, play a key role in slowing compound dissociation. We expect that the combination of the τRAMD simulation procedure with machine learning analysis will be generally applicable as an aid to target-based lead optimization.

Fluorescent labels are often attachedto proteins to monitor binding and adsorption processes. Docking simulations for native henegg white lysozyme (HEWL) and HEWL labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanateshow that these adsorb differently on charged surfaces. Attachmentof even a small label can significantly change the interaction propertiesof a protein. Thus, the results of experiments with fluorescentlylabeled proteins should be interpreted by modeling the structuresand computing the interaction properties of both labeled and unlabeledspecies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While modern docking methods often predict accurate binding modes, affinity calculations remain challenging and enrichment rates of in silico screening methods unsatisfactory. Inadequate treatment of induced fit effects is one major shortcoming of existing in silico screening methods. Here we investigate enrichment rates of rigid-, soft- and flexible-receptor models for 12 diverse receptors using libraries containing up to 13000 molecules. For the rigid-receptor model, we observed high enrichment (EF 1> 20) only for four target proteins. A soft-receptor model showed improved docking rates at the expense of reduced enrichment rates. A flexible side-chain model with flexible dihedral angles for up to 12 amino acids (3−8 flexible side chains) increased both binding propensity and enrichment rates: EF 1values increased by ∼35% on average with respect to rigid docking. We find on average 4 known ligands in the top 10 molecules in the rank-ordered databases for the receptors investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]